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Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are two examples of pre-Mendelian hypotheses of inheritance?

A

Pangenesis and blending hypothesis

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2
Q

This theory of inheritance was proposed by Hippocrates in 400 BC

A

Pangenesis

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3
Q

In this theory of inheritance, “seeds” are produced by all parts of the body, collect in the reproductive organs and are transmitted to offspring at conception

A

Pangenesis

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4
Q

Who proposed the theory of pangenesis?

A

Hippocrates

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5
Q

What are the two main ideas of the blending hypothesis of inheritance?

A
  1. Factors that control hereditary traits are malleable; 2. Factors that control hereditary traits can blend together from generation to generation
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6
Q

Who is considered to be the father of genetics?

A

Gregor Johann Mendel

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7
Q

Mendel’s meticulously accurate records of his experiments included this type of analysis

A

Quantitative analysis

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8
Q

Mendel published this work in 1866

A

Experiments on Plant Hybrids

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9
Q

Was Mendel’s 1866 paper given attention right away by the scientific community?

A

No

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10
Q

What are two reasons why Mendel’s work went ignored in his lifetime?

A
  1. Title did not capture importance of work; 2. Lack of understanding of chromosome transmission
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11
Q

Mendel’s work was independently rediscovered in 1900 by these three scientists

A

Hugo de Vries (Holland); Carl Correns (Germany); Erich von Tschermak (Austria)

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12
Q

Mendel chose this species to study the natural laws governing plant hybrids

A

Garden pea (Pisum sativum)

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13
Q

What are two reasons why the garden pea plant was advantageous for Mendel to study?

A
  1. It existed in several varieties with distinct characteristics; 2. Its structure allowed for easy crosses and parental choice
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14
Q

What two types of breeding experiments did Mendel carry out?

A

Self-fertilization and cross-fertilization

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15
Q

This type of fertilization naturally occurs in pea plant because of isolation of the plant’s reproductive structure

A

Self-fertilization

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16
Q

This type of fertilization requires removing and manipulating the anther of the pea plant

A

Cross-fertilization

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17
Q

How many true-breeding characteristics did Mendel study in pea plants?

A

7

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18
Q

These are the observable characteristics of an organism

A

Characters

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19
Q

This term describes the specific properties of a character

A

Trait (or variant)

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20
Q

This is a variety of an organism that produces the same trait over several generations

A

True-breeder

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21
Q

What are the seven characters of pea plants that Mendel studied?

A
  1. Height; 2. Flower color; 3. Flower position; 4. Seed color; 5. Seed shape; 6. Pod color; 7. Pod shape
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22
Q

What two variants of the height character in peas did Mendel observe?

A

Tall and dwarf

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23
Q

What two variants of the flower color character in peas did Mendel observe?

A

Purple and white

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24
Q

What two variants of the flower position character in peas did Mendel observe?

A

Axial and terminal

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25
What two variants of the seed color character in peas did Mendel observe?
Yellow and green
26
What two variants of the seed shape character in peas did Mendel observe?
Round and wrinkled
27
What two variants of the pod color character in peas did Mendel observe?
Green and yellow
28
What two variants of the pod shape character in peas did Mendel observe?
Smooth and constricted
29
Did Mendel have a hypothesis to explain hybrids?
No
30
Mendel believed that quantitative analysis of crosses may provide these that govern hereditary traits
Mathematical relationships
31
This approach, used by Mendel, is used to deduce empirical laws
Empirical approach
32
Mendel's first experiments involved crossing these
Two variants of the same character
33
This is the term for crossing two variants of the same character to observe that character
Single-factor cross
34
What was the result for the F1 generation across all 7 single-factor crosses that Mendel performed?
All one variant
35
What was the ratio of the F2 generation across all 7 single-factor crosses that Mendel performed?
3:1
36
Mendel's results refuted this mechanism of heredity
Blending
37
This variant's effect can be seen in the F1 generation of a single-factor cross
Dominant
38
This variant's effect cannot be seen in the F1 generation of a single-factor cross
Recessive
39
Mendel's results supported this type of inheritance theory, that suggests traits are inherited as discrete units
Particulate theory of inheritance
40
This Mendelian law states that two copies of a gene segregate from each other during the process that gives rise to gametes
Law of Segregation
41
What ratio is consistent with Mendel's Law of Segregation?
3:1
42
This is a grid that helps predict the outcome of simple genetic crosses
Punnett square
43
The Punnett square was proposed by this English geneticist
Reginald Punnett
44
What are the two possible patterns of inheritance for two-factor crosses?
Linked assortment or independent assortment
45
The occurence of these in the F2 generation of two-factor crosses contradicts the linked assortment model
Nonparentals (offspring with novel combinations of traits)
46
What is the predicted phenotypic ratio of an independently assorted F2 generation?
9:3:3:1
47
This Mendelian law states that two different genes will randomly assort during gamete formation
Law of Independent Assortment
48
Why are some genes linked?
They are close together on the same chromosome
49
This is when an offspring receives a combination of alleles that differs from the parental generation
Genetic recombination
50
What are two causes of genetic recombination?
Independent assortment and crossing over
51
The Punnett square becomes cumbersome when involving this many independently assorting genes
3 or more
52
These are two alternative methods to the Punnett square for predicting crosses involving 3 or more independently assorting genes
Forked-line method and multiplication method
53
Modern geneticists are often interested in the relationship between this and the outcome of traits
Molecular expression of genes
54
What two-step approach do modern geneticists use to examine the outcome of traits based on gene expression?
1. Identify individual with defective copy of gene; 2. Observe how this copy affects the organism's phenotype
55
These are defective copies of genes
Loss-of-function alleles
56
Are loss-of-function alleles commonly inherited as dominant or recessive alleles?
Recessive
57
This is used to determine the pattern of inheritance of traits in humans
Pedigree analysis
58
Pedigree analysis is commonly used to determine the inheritance pattern of these
Human genetic diseases
59
Is cystic fibrosis a recessive or dominant disorder?
Recessive
60
About what percent of Caucasian people carry the gene that causes cystic fibrosis?
3%
61
This protein that regulates ion transport across the cell membrane is altered by a mutant allele in individuals with cystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)
62
What is the formula for the probability of an event?
Probability = # of times an event occurs/total # of events
63
This deviation between observed and expected outcomes is large for small samples and small for large samples
Random sampling error
64
To compute probability, these two mathetmatical operations are used
Product rule and binomial expansion equation
65
This rule states that the probability that two or more independent events will occur is equal to the product of their respective probabilities
Product rule
66
These are events in which the occurrence of one does not affect the probability of another
Independent events
67
In this genetic disease, affected individuals cannot perceive extreme sensations as painful
Congenital analgesia
68
This is a statistical method used to determine the goodness of fit
Chi Square Test
69
This refers to how close the observed data are to those predicted from a hypothesis
Goodness of fit
70
Can the chi square test prove that a hypothesis is correct?
No
71
What is the general formula for the Chi Square Test?
χ² = ∑ (O - E)²/E
72
What does O stand for in the Chi Square Test formula?
Observed data in each category
73
What does E stand for in the Chi Square Test formula?
Expected data in each category based on the experimenter's hypothesis
74
What does ∑ stand for in the Chi Square Test formula?
Sum of calculations for each category
75
The calculated chi square value can be used to obtain these from a chi square table
P values
76
These probabilities determine the likelihood that observed deviations are due to random chance alone
P values
77
What do low chi square values indicate?
High probability that the observed deviations could be due to random chance alone
78
What do high chi square values indicate?
Low probability that the observed deviations are due to random chance alonee
79
If a chi square test results in a P value less than this, the hypothesis is rejected
0.05 (5%)
80
Before using a chi square table, these have to be determined
Degrees of freedom
81
This is a measure of the number of categories that are independent of each other
Degrees of freedom
82
What is the formula for degrees of freedom?
df = n - 1
83
What does n stand for in the formula for degrees of freedom?
Total number of categories

Genetics (11 decks)

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