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Chapter 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

This project aimed to decode all of the DNA found in all human chromosomes

A

Human Genome Project

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2
Q

What year did the Human Genome Project start?

A

1990

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3
Q

What two bodies coordinated the Human Genome Project?

A

National Institutes of Health (NIH) and Department of Energy (DOE)

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4
Q

How many chromosomes do humans have?

A

46 (23 pairs)

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5
Q

What length is human DNA?

A

2 meters

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6
Q

Approximately how many genes do humans have?

A

22,000

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7
Q

Approximately how many DNA base pairs are in each set of human chromosomes?

A

3 billion

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8
Q

When was the complete sequence of the human genome published?

A

2003

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9
Q

What was the accuracy of the Human Genome Project?

A

99.99%

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10
Q

This project was launched to catalog human genetic variation

A

1000 Genomes Project

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11
Q

In what year was the sequencing of 2,500 genomes described in Nature?

A

2015

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12
Q

What are three examples of fundamental molecular details that the study of the human genome provides?

A
  1. How many genes humans have; 2. How cells develop into complex tissue; 3. How defective genes cause disease
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13
Q

This genetic technology is often considered controversial

A

Mammalian cloning

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14
Q

In what year was the first mammal cloned?

A

1997

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15
Q

Which scientist, along with his colleagues, was the first to clone a mammal?

A

Ian Wilmut

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16
Q

Fear that cloning technology could be applied to humans led to these

A

Legislative bans on human cloning

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17
Q

Mice can be genetically modified with genes from this animal to emit a green fluorescent glow upon exposure to blue or ultraviolet light

A

Jellyfish

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18
Q

This is the study of heredity and variation

A

Genetics

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19
Q

Along with this concept, genetics is the unifying discipline in biology

A

Evolution

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20
Q

Genetics is centered on the study of these

A

Genes

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21
Q

This is classically defined as the “unit” of heredity

A

Gene

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22
Q

What is the modern definition of a gene?

A

Segment of DNA that produces a functional product such as polypeptide

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23
Q

Genes provide the blueprint that determines these of an organism

A

Traits

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24
Q

These are the observable characteristics of an organism

A

Traits

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25
Q

All cells are constructed from these

A

Small organic molecules

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26
Q

Small organic molecules are linked together by these to form larger molecules

A

Chemical bonds

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27
Q

What are the four main types of large molecules contained in cells?

A

Nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids

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28
Q

Nucleic acids, proteins and carbohydrates are considered this type of molecule

A

Macromolecule

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29
Q

These are smaller molecules that construct polymers

A

Monomers

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30
Q

These form as a result of the interaction of molecules and macromolecules

A

Cellular structures

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31
Q

These are used to make long strands of DNA

A

Nucleotide building blocks

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32
Q

DNA strands associate with proteins to form these

A

Chromosomes

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33
Q

In what part of the cell are chromosomes contained?

A

Nucleus

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34
Q

This is composed of a linear sequence of amino acids

A

Polypeptide

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35
Q

Each of these is composed of one or more polypeptides

A

Protein

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36
Q

The characteristics of a cell largely depend on these

A

The proteins it produces

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37
Q

This is all of the proteins that a cell makes at a given time

A

Proteome

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38
Q

What are three functions of proteins?

A

Structure, transport, enzyme

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39
Q

Tubulin is an example of this type of protein

A

Structural protein

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40
Q

Tubulin aggregates to form these

A

Microtubules

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41
Q

Tubulin/microtubules play a part in these two roles in the cell

A

Shape and movement

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42
Q

Where in the cell are transport proteins found?

A

Cell membrane

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43
Q

What role do transport proteins play in the cell?

A

Aid in transport of ions/small molecules across cell membrane

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44
Q

These are biological catalysts

A

Enzymes

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45
Q

Enzymes/catalysts accelerate these

A

Chemical reactions

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46
Q

What are the two types of enzyme?

A

Catabolic and anabolic

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47
Q

This category of enzymes is involved in the breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones

A

Catabolic enzymes

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48
Q

Catabolic enzyme reactions provide this for cell activities

A

Energy

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49
Q

This category of enzymes is involved in the synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones

A

Anabolic enzymes

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50
Q

Anabolic enzyme reactions provide components for this

A

Construction of the cell

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51
Q

This is the genetic material in all living organisms

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

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52
Q

Some viruses use this molecule as their genetic material, as a DNA alternative

A

RNA

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53
Q

DNA encodes the information required to synthesize these

A

Cellular proteins

54
Q

What aspect of DNA allows it to encode information?

A

Molecular structure

55
Q

A DNA strand is a polymer of these monomers

A

Nucleotides

56
Q

What are the four nitrogenous bases that make up nucleotides?

A

Adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine

57
Q

Genetic information is stored in this along the DNA molecule

A

Lineaer sequence of ATCG bases

58
Q

This directs the order of amino acids

A

Genetic code

59
Q

How many bases are in each amino acid code?

A

3

60
Q

DNA in living cells is contained within these large structures

A

Chromosomes

61
Q

How many chromosomes do human cells have?

A

46

62
Q

Each chromosome is a complex of these two components

A

DNA and proteins

63
Q

How many nucleotides per DNA strand does an average human chromosome contain?

A

> 100 million nucleotides

64
Q

How many different genes are contained in the average human chromosome?

A

~1000

65
Q

DNA information is accessed during this process

A

Gene expression

66
Q

What are the two steps of gene expression?

A

Transcription and translation

67
Q

In this gene expression step, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a nucleotide sequence of RNA

A

Transcription

68
Q

In this step of gene expression, the nucleotide sequence in RNA provides information to make the amino acid sequence of a protein

A

Translation

69
Q

This is any characteristic that an organism displays

A

Trait

70
Q

What are three types of traits that can be identified in an organism?

A

Morphological, physiological, behavioral

71
Q

These traits affect the appearance of an organism

A

Morphological traits

72
Q

These traits affect the function of an organism

A

Physiological traits

73
Q

These traits affect the way an organism responds to the environment

A

Behavioral traits

74
Q

This process within cells leads to an organism’s traits

A

Molecular expression of genes

75
Q

What are the four levels of biological organization spanned by the relationship between genes and traits?

A

Molecular, cellular, organism, population

76
Q

These are expressed at the molecular level

A

Genes

77
Q

These function at the cellular level

A

Proteins

78
Q

These are often observed at the organism level

A

Traits

79
Q

These can be studied at the population level

A

Genes/traits within a particular species

80
Q

This refers to the differences in inherited traits among individuals within a population

A

Genetic variation

81
Q

These are contrasting forms within a single species

A

Morphs

82
Q

Genetic variation is a result of this

A

Changes to DNA at molecular level

83
Q

What are three different types of changes DNA can undergo at the molecular level?

A
  1. Gene mutations; 2. Chromosome structure changes; 3. Chromosome number changes
84
Q

This type of DNA change leads to a difference in gene sequences

A

Gene mutation

85
Q

These are the result of genetic mutation leading to two or more expression forms of the same gene

A

Alleles

86
Q

In this type of DNA change, large segments of a chromosome may be lost, duplicated or reattached to another chromosome

A

Chromosome structure change

87
Q

In this type of DNA change, single chromosomes may be lost or gained

A

Chromosome number change

88
Q

How many chromosomes does a person with Down syndrome have?

A

47

89
Q

Can entire extra sets of chromosomes be inherited?

A

Yes

90
Q

How many sets of chromosomes does cultivated wheat have?

A

6

91
Q

Do an individual’s traits result from its genes alone?

A

No

92
Q

Traits are an interaction between these two factors

A

Genes and environment

93
Q

Can an individual’s environment dictate whether or not a disease is manifested?

A

Yes

94
Q

This is a human genetic disease involving genes and the environment that involves a gene encoding the enzyme phenylalanine

A

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

95
Q

The enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase converts phenylalanine to this

A

Tyrosine

96
Q

If a human has one functional copy of the gene that encodes phenylalanine hydroxylase, can they metabolize phenylalanine?

A

Yes

97
Q

If a human has two functional copies of the gene that encodes phenylalanine hydroxylase, can they metabolize phenylalanine?

A

Yes

98
Q

If a human has two copies of a rare inactive allele of the gene that encodes phenylalanine hydroxylase, can they metabolize phenylalanine?

A

No

99
Q

In humans with phenylketonuria (PKU), these accumulate in the absence of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase

A

Phenylketones

100
Q

What is the treatment for phenylketonuria?

A

Strict dietary restriction (phenylalanine-free diet)

101
Q

This scientist provided the foundation for the science of genetics in the mid-19th century

A

Gregor Mendel

102
Q

Sexually reproducing species are commonly this, meaning they have two copies of each chromosome

A

Diploid

103
Q

What is the term for chromosome copies?

A

Homologs

104
Q

Do homologs contain the same genes?

A

Yes

105
Q

Do homologs always contain the same alleles?

A

No

106
Q

Gametes are usually this, meaning they have one copy of each chromosome

A

Haploid

107
Q

This process in sexual reproduction restores the diploid number of chromosomes

A

Fertilization of egg by sperm

108
Q

Sexual reproduction enhances this in offspring

A

Genetic variation

109
Q

Can sexual reproduction result in combinations of traits not found in either parent?

A

Yes

110
Q

What is a common exception to the rule that all human chromosomes form 23 homologous pairs?

A

X and Y chromosomes of human males

111
Q

Are sperm and egg cells haploid or diploid?

A

Haploid

112
Q

This is the change of the genetic makeup of a population over many generations

A

Biological evolution

113
Q

This is the process in which individuals with greater reproductive success are more likely to pass their genes to future generations

A

Natural selection

114
Q

Can random mutations lead to beneficial alleles in some individuals in a population?

A

Yes

115
Q

Passing of beneficial alleles to subsequent generations can lead to this

A

Accumulation of genetic changes

116
Q

Researchers often study these so they can compare their research results

A

Model organisms

117
Q

What are the three traditional fields of genetics?

A
  1. Transmission genetics; 2. Molecular genetics; 3. Population genetics
118
Q

This field of genetics explores the inheritance patterns of traits as they are passed from parents to offspring

A

Transmission genetics

119
Q

What is the oldest field of genetics?

A

Transmission genetics

120
Q

When was the conceptual framework for transmission genetics provided by Gregor Mendel

A

1860s

121
Q

Genetic determinants pass from parent to offspring as these, that are now termed genes

A

Discrete units

122
Q

The basic experiment approach in transmission genetics is this, in which two selected individuals are bred to each other

A

Genetic cross

123
Q

Are traits analyzed over only one generation in transmission genetics?

A

No

124
Q

Is analysis in transmission genetics often qualitative or quantitative in nature?

A

Quantitative

125
Q

This field of genetics focuses on a biochemical understanding of the hereditary material

A

Molecular genetics

126
Q

What are two major areas of study in molecular genetics?

A
  1. Gene organization/function; 2. Detailed analysis of DNA/RNA/proteins
127
Q

Molecular geneticists typically employ this approach to research

A

Genetic approach

128
Q

These genes have abnormal function

A

Mutant genes

129
Q

Can mutations reveal the role of a gene in creating a trait?

A

Yes

130
Q

This field of genetics is concerned with genetic variation and its role in evolution

A

Population genetics

131
Q

Population genetics deals with the genetic variation of populations and how that variation is related to this

A

The environment

132
Q

Population geneticists develop these to explain the prevalence of certain alleles within populations

A

Mathematical theories

Genetics (9 decks)

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