chapter 3 Flashcards
what is the main purpose of research?
- understand people
2.improve the quality of human lives
psychology is the scientific study of ______ and _______.
mind and behaviour
⭐️define psychology briefly
the DISCIPLINE concerned with behaviour and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s PHYSICAL STATE, MENTAL STATE and EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
what type of specialist CREATE new knowledge in psychology?
Research psychologist
define psychologist practitioners?
the ones who typically USE knowledge that already exists.
what is data
Data is plural, required, collection of information, cognitively stored in mind as info or memories
how is data stored?
in the form of visual depictions as bar graphs or spreadsheets enabling us to check on different levels
what are the 2 types of data?
qualitative and quantitative
difference between qualitative and quantitative data?
Qualitative- non numeric, descriptive in nature, includes observations, narratives providing deeper understanding of behaviours, emotions, experiences.
Quantitative- numerical info, statistical analysis, measurable variables
⭐️EMPIRICAL METHOD?
process of collecting and organizing data and drawing conclusions about those data.
⭐️SCIENTIFIC METHOD
set of assumptions, rules and procedures that scientists use to conduct empirical research.
Psychological research may be either _______ or _______ in orientation
basic, applied
difference between basic research and applied research
BASIC RESEARCH- answers fundamental questions about behaviour
(no particular reason just to acquire knowledge oh how certain processes occur)
APPLIED RESEARCH- that investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provides solutions for everyday problems.
what is the first step of psychological study and define it?
RESEARCH DESIGN
specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze and interpret data
name the 3 major types of research design?
Descriptive research
correlational research
experimental research
define replicability
ability for findings to be supported by multiple studies and generalize across time and situations
research designs vary according to ______ and ______.
strength and limitations
what are ethical codes
set of rules that must be followed by researchers
psychologist use ________ method to guide their research
scientific
according to psychologist what is the best tool for understanding human beings and their relationship with others.
RESEARCH
scientific method demands that the procedures used be ______.
OBJECTIVE- free from personal bias or emotions of the scientist
what are “laws” in psychology?
principles that are so general as to apply to all situations in a given domain of inquiry
define theory
integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed relationships with a given domain of enquiry
ex- stage theory of cognitive development
what are the 4 imp characters of good theories
they are:
1.GENERAL- summarize many diff outcomes
2.PARSIMONIOUS- provide simplest possible account of these outcomes(ideas are simple not complex)
3.provide ideas for future research.
- ARE FALSIFIABLE- means variables of interest can be measured+ relationships b/w variable, predicted by the theory, can be shown incorrect through research.
name some data collections methods?
SURVEY
INTERVIEW
CONTENT ANALYSIS
OBSERVATION
FOCUS GROUPS
what is the key method of data collection in psychology?
EXPERIMENTATION
what is the difference between value and facts?
VALUE- viewed as personal statement or feelings about an issue and may be quiet abstract
FACTS- an objective statements that are verifiable through empirical study
what values are desirable states of existence?
terminal values
define terminal value and instrumental values
INSTRUMENTAL VALUES- means or strategies used to achieve terminal values, serving as the stepping stones or tools to reach the desired end goals.
TERMINAL VALUES are end goals desired outcomes that individuals strive to achieve for their own sake, such as happiness or personal fulfillment.
instrumental values consists primarily of ______ and ________.
characteristics and personality traits
what are some value-laden social and human rights issue
abortion
MAID(medical assistance in dying)
what are the 3 ways to come at a problem and which ones are used in psy121?
lower- biological(genes, hormones)
middle- involves individual differences
higher- cultural and social
MIDDLE and HIGHER are used in psy 121
______ instead of theory is used as the basis of research by scientists.
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
DEFINE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
It is a specific and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between or among two or more variables.
define variables
any attribute than can assume different values among diff people or across diff times or places.
what abstract ideas form the basis of research hypothesis?
conceptual variables
what is the first step in testing a research hypothesis
turning conceptual variables into measured variables
define measured variables
variables consisting of numbers that represent conceptual variables
define operational definition
precise statement of how a conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable
The most widespread concern to the participants in behavioural research is the extent to which researchers employ ________.
deception
define deception
it occurs whenever participants are not completely and fully informed about the nature of the research project before participating in it
_________ and ______ help provide humane treatment for participants in a research.
informed consent
debriefing
a _________ is used to determine what research should and should not be allowed to proceed.
cost-benefit analysis
_______ is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with morality
ethics
what are the 4 general moral principles which apply to scientific research ethics
weighing risks against benefits
acting responsibly
seeking justice
respecting people’e rights and dignity
what is the term used for a helper who pretend to be a real participant in a research?
CONFEDERATE
what is the “informed consent” concept
I.e. researchers obtain people’s agreement to participate after informing them everything
what was the nuremberg code about?
set of 10 principles
particularly focused on risks against benefits+ informed consent
what was the additions made by DECLARATION OF HELINSKI
that a detailed written (protocol) description of the research done to humans
Belmont report is a set of ____________-.
federal guidelines
what committee is responsible for reviewing research protocols for potential ethical problems.
ethical review board(ERB)
or
Institutional review boards(IRB)
what are the three levels of research risks?
EXEMPT RESEARCH
MINIMAL RISK RESEARCH
AT-RISK RESEARCH: Greater than minimal, must be viewed by IRB members
what are some of the most imp concepts of APA ethics?
informed consent
deception
debriefing
use of non human animal objects
what are the varieties of forms of deception that can take place in a study ?
1.misinforming participants
2.using confederates
3.false feedback of their performance
4.not fully informing PARTICIPANTS of the full design or true purpose of research
acc to APA ethics code, deception is only allowed if ___________.
benefits of the study outweighs the risks
define debriefing
process of informing research participants as soon as possible of the purpose of the study, revealing any deception, correcting any misconceptions also involves minimizing the harm that might have occurred.
which is the most imp ethic code for researchers in psychology?
APA ethics code
define descriptive research
A research designed to provide a snapshot of the current state of affairs
define correlational research
a research designed to discover relationship between two variables and allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge.
define experimental knowledge
A research in which initial equivalence among research participants in more than one group is created, followed by a manipulation of a given experience for these groups and a measurement of the influence of manipulation.
what are the types of descriptive research?
case studies
surveys
naturalistic observation
what is SAMPLE
the people chosen to participate in the research
the result of descriptive research are analyzed using _________
descriptive statistics
A data distribution that is shaped like a bell is known as a ________-
normal distribution
define descriptive statistics
numbers that summarize the distribution of scores on a measured variable
how can a distribution be defined?
in terms of its central tendency i.e. the point in the distribution around which the data are centred
what is the most commonly used measure of central tendency?
denoted by ‘M’
arithmetic average of arithmetic mean
sum of all scores of variable divided by no of participants in the distribution
when does the asymmetry of data occurs?
when there are one or more extreme scores(outliers) at the end of the distribution
what alternative measure of central tendency is used when distributions are NOT SYMMETRICAL?
median- the score in the centre of the distribution.
what measure of central tendency represent the value that occurs most frequently in the distribution?
mode
define dispersion
the extent to which the scores are
all tightly clustered around the central tendency
what is the simplest measure of dispersion and how to compute the range of the variable?
to measure dispersion, find the maximum and the minimum observed values of the variable and to compute the range, maximum score-minimum score
what is the most commonly used measure of dispersion?
STANDARD DEVIATION, ‘S’
when there are two variables in the correlational research design, one of them is called the________, and the other ___________.
predictor variable
outcome variable
what does the curved arrow between two variables represent?
expected correlation
____________ is the visual image of the relationship between two variables.
scatter plot
define a linear relationship?
when the association between the variables on the scatter plot can be easily approximated with a straight line, the variable are said to have a linear relationship.
what are the 2 types of linear relationship?
POSITIVE LINEAR RELATIONSHIP: people who score higher on one of the variables also tend to score higher on the other variable
NEGATIVE LINEAR RELATIONSHIP: people who score higher on one of the variables tend to score lower on the other variable.
Relationships between variable that cannot be describes with a straight line are known as ________.
Nonlinear relationships- no relationship at all between variables, said to be independent.
define curvilinear relationships
relationships that change in direction and thus are not describes by a single straight line
name the most common statistical measure of the strength of linear relationships among variables?
Pearson correlation coefficient, ‘r’
ranges from -1.00 to +1.00
how is direction of linear relationship indicated?
by the sign of correlation coefficient
positive values- relationship is positive linear (pattern goes from lower left to upper right)
negative values-relationship is negative linear
(pattern goes from upper left to lower right)
define multiple regression
A statistical technique based on correlation coefficients among variables that allows predicting a single outcome variable from more than one predictor variable.
eg.
predictor variable- salary. job satisfaction, years employed
outcome variable- job performance
name one imp Limitation of correlational research?
they cannot be used to draw conclusions about the causal relationships Among the measured variables.
define common causal variable
it is a variable that is not a part of the research hypothesis but that causes both the predictor ad the outcome variable and thus produces the observed correlation between them.
A _________ is a relationship between two variables in which a common-causal variable produces and “explains away” the relationship.
spurious relationship
_______ is not demonstrated by correlation and is the key diff between b/w correlation research and experimental research.
causation
what is the goal of experimental research?
provide definitive conclusions about causal relationships among the variable in the research hypothesis
what are the variables of interest known as in an experimental research design
INDEPENDENT variables- is the causing variable that is created(manipulated) by the experimenter
DEPENDENT variable- measured variable that is expected to be influenced by the experimental manipulation.
The most common method of creating equivalence among the experimental conditions is through ?
random assignment to conditions
when is a research said to be valid?
when the conclusion drawn by the researcher are legitimate
how many major type of threats are present to the validity of research?
4
THREATS TO CONSTRUCT VALIDITY- what if the measured variable does not measure conceptual
THREATS TO STATISTICAL CONCLUSION VALIDITY- wrong conclusions maybe because no statistical tests made or were incorrectly interpreted
THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY-what if the independent variable does not cause the dependent, rather confounding variable does
THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY-what if the observed effects are not general but are only found under limited conditions or specific group of people.
______ refers to the consistency of measured variable.
reliability
ability to learn about the relationship between the conceptual variables in a research hypothesis is dependent on the ___________ of the measured variables.
operational definitions
_________ refers to the confidence with which a scientist can conclude that data are not due to chance or random error.
Statistical significance
__________ refers to the extent to which we can be certain that the researcher has drawn accurate conclusions about the statistical significance of the research.
Statistical conclusion validity
__________ are the variables other than the independent variable on which the participants in one experimental
condition differ systematically from those in other conditions
confounding variables
________ makes it impossible to be sure that the independent variable caused the dependent variable.
confounding
________ refers to the extent to which relationships among conceptual variables can be demonstrated in a wide variety of people and a wide variety of manipulated or measured variables
Generalization
If the results are the
same in both cultures, then we say that the results have generalized, but if they are different, then we have learned a
__________- of the effect
limiting condition
The process of repeating previous research, which forms the basis of all scientific inquiry, is known as__________.
replication
what procedure is used by scientists to summarize replications of research findings?
META-ANALYSIS
statistical technique that uses the results of existing studies to integrate and draw conclusions about those
studies.
Scientists use _______ to better understand the external validity of research.
meta-analyses
Internal validity is greater when confounding variables are ?
reduced or eliminated
theories are usually framed too broadly to be tested in a single experiment. Therefore, scientists normally use the _______ as a basis for their research
research hypothesis
Scientists use _________ to turn the ideas of interest — conceptual variables — into measured variables.
operational definitions
EXPERIMENTER BIAS?
situation in which the experimenter subtly treats the research participants in the various experimental conditions differently, resulting
in an invalid confirmation of the research hypothesis.
WILHELM WUNDT’s research was on ________?
TRAINED INTROSPECTION
WHO INTENDED ON DISTINGUISHING PSYCHOLOGY AS SCIENCE?
WILHELM WUNDT
WHAT WAS William Wundts structuralism
a theory of consciousness, where trained observers were thought to be able to understand emotions, behaviours and thoughts through careful, deep observation
what was William Wundts structuralism approach?
individuals would describe their feelings, and images and sensations when experiencing a given event
what were the limitations of structuralism of Wundts’s ?
highly subjective, each person had a unique experience
___________ was developed by William James?
functionalism
define functionalism ?
he moved beyond description and analysis, he believed consciousness could not have basic unit or structure..
concerned with how and why underlying a persons behaviour
William James expanded the study of psychology to include children, religion and the __________.
stream of consciousness
who was the founder of psychoanalysis ?
sigmund freud
what was psychoanalysis ?
everything we do is made up of a complex struggle between our conscious and unconscious- much with people problems from painful childhood experiences that could no longer be expected
what theorizing was given by sigmand freud?
“iceberg”
looking at the unconscious as it relates to our early sexual experiences/current sexual desires
name 2 additional subfields of psychology?
behaviourism/evolutionary
neuroimaging/fMRI
treatment for autism spectrum disorder
ABA
Applied behaviour analysis
additional subfields of psychology?
cultural
personality
clinical
positive
humanistic
what is the big five factor model?
OCEAN
Openness
Consciousness
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
__________ was a pioneer in applied social psychology?
KURT LEWIN
WHAT WAS THE EQUATION DERIVED FROM KURT LEWIN?
BEHAVIOUR IS A FUNCTION OF BOTH PERSONALITY AND ENVIRONMENT
i.e OCEAN * social situations ( work, occupation, play, sports etc)
define inclusion
Recognition of, respect for, and
valuation of, individual differences across
identities; people feel free to, and are
encouraged to, bring their “authentic
selves” to work
what is EDI?
Equity
Diversity
Inclusion and belonging
what factor was put to the test in the Robber’s cave study?
Group dynamics- society learned a lot about how groups get along when they are in competition for resources and when they work cooperatively.
microagression gave a major contribution to what in psychology?
Diversity
define microagression?
brief and commonplace daily, verbal, behavioural and environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional that communicate hostile, derogatory or negative racial slights and insults to the target person or groups.
which was the first online encyclopedia of micro aggression?
how do micro aggression make you feel?
define intersectionality
refers to simultaneous experiences of social categories such as race, gender, socioeconomic status and sexual interaction and the ways in which these categories interact to create system of oppression, domination and discrimination
what two studies created the need for ethics review boards and a code of ethics for psychologists?
Social Psychologists—>
Stanley Milgram
Phillip Zimbardo
what are the ways to mitigate risks in research ?
-modify research design(where possible)
-pilot-test of pre-screen
hallmarks of true experiment?
- Random assignment of participants to conditions
- Manipulation of variable
when using the survey method ex. distributing questionnaires to participant what validity is focused on?
CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
what we use to show that our “questionnaires” are valid
when using the experimental method, randomly assigning participants to conditions or groups what validity is focused on?
internal validity
which answers the question- are our result a function of the independent variable OR is it a function of some third variable or confounding variable
