chapter 14 Flashcards
define development
physiological, behavioural, cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout human life, which are guided by both genetic predispositions(nature) and by environmental influencers(nurture)
define infancy
development of stage that begins at birth and continues to one year of age
define childhood
periods between infancy and onset of puberty
define adoloscence
years b/w onset of puberty and the beginning of adulthood(emerging, early, middle and older adulthood)
define conception
occurs when an egg from mother is fertilized by a sperm from the other.
ovulation?
when an ovum or egg which has been stored in one of the mother’s two ovaries, matures and is released into fallopian tube
largest cell in the human body?
egg
zygote is a fertilized _____.
ovum
define zygote
within several hours of conceptions, half of the 23 chromosomes from the sperm fuse together, creating zygote
once the zygote attaches to the wall of uterus , it is known as _____-.
embryo
during which phase major internal and external organs are formed
embryonic phase, last for the next six weeks
inner layer of embryo forms _______ and outer layer forms _________.
embryo itself, surrounding protective environment that will help the embryo survive during pregnancy
what are the 3 major structures during embryonic stage
AMNIOTIC SAC
PLACENTA
UMBILICAL CORD
DEFINE AMNIOTIC SAC
fluid-filled reservoir in which the embryo(soon to be known as a fetus) will live until birth
functions of amniotic sac
-cushion against outside pressure
-temp regulator
_______ is an organ
that allows the exchange of nutrients between the embryo and the mother, while at the same time filtering out harmful material
placenta
_________links the embryo
directly to the placenta and transfers all material to the fetus.
umbilical cord
what two organs protect the fetus from many foreign agents?
placenta, amniotic sac
at what time ford embryo becomes a fetus after conception?
ninth week after conception
defining characteristic of the fetal stage
is.
growth
substances that can harm the fetus despite protection from placenta and umbilical cord are known as ____?
teratogens- general environmental factors, such as air pollution and radiation, but
also the cigarettes, alcohol, and drugs that the mother may use.
how does cigarette smoking affects the child?
reduces the blood
oxygen for both the mother and child and can cause a fetus to be born severely underweight
name the condition caused by maternal alcohol drinking that can lead to numerous detrimental developmental effects.
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
name the detrimental developmental effects caused due to FAS
limb and facial abnormalities, genital anomalies, and intellectual disability.
how much alcohol consumption is safe for pregnant women?
none
what is considered
one of the greatest risk factors facing unborn children.
maternal drug abuse
how does environment in which the mother is living has a major impact on infant development?
ex- children born into poverty are also more likely to be exposed to teratogens.
development begins at the moment of?
conception, when sperm merges with egg
the fetus is protected by _______-
amniotic sac
understanding cognitive development by observing the behaviour of infants is through the use of the ?
habituation technique
define habituation?
decreased responsiveness toward a stimulus after it has been presented numerous times in succession.
Jean Piaget developed his theories of child development by ?
observing the behaviours of children.
define schemas
patterns of knowledge in long-term memory- that help them remember, organize and respond to info
what is the theory given by jean Piaget?
theory of cognitive development
1. children have cognitive structure
2. children are not passive, they actively acquire knowledge
3. children are different from adults
4. children may start various stages earlier than others, and this may
depend on country they live in
according to Piaget, children use both ______ and _______ to develop functioning schemas of the world?
accommodation
assimilation
different between assimilation and accommodation?
assimilation- use already developed schemes to understand new info( children fit existing schema to the new info and label the new info to the existing knowledge)
accommodation- learning new info and thus changing the schema
what was Piaget’s most important contribution to understanding cognitive development, and the fundamental aspect of his theory
idea that development occurs in unique and distinct stages, with each stage occurring at a specific time,
in a sequential manner, and in a way that allows the child to think about the world using new capacities.
what are Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
- sensorimotor- Birth to
about 2 years - pre-operational- 2 to 7 years
- concrete operational- 7 to 11 years
- formal operational- 11 years to
adulthood
at what stage babies form their first schemas using primary senses?
sensorimotor stage
define object permanence?
child’s ability to know that an object exists even when the object cannot be perceived
acc to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development children begin to use language and to think more abstractly about objects, with capacity to form mental images
preoperational stage
what is the stage attainment in pre-operational stage?
egocentric-unable to readily see and
understand other people’s viewpoints.
what is theory of mind?
ability to take other person’s viewpoint
_________- is marked by more
frequent and more accurate use of transitions, operations, and abstract concepts, including those of time, space, and numbers
concrete operational stage
An important milestone during the concrete operational stage is the ________.
development of conservation- understanding that changes in the form of an object do not necessarily mean changes in the quantity of the object
_________- marked by the ability to think in abstract
terms and to use scientific and philosophical lines of thought
formal operational period
what is the theory given by Lev Vygotsky?
sociocultural theory - argue that cognitive development is not isolated entirely within the child
but occurs at least in part through social interactions- idea of community learning
what are child’s social skill?
the ability to understand, predict, and create bonds with the other people
in their environments
_________ is known as consciousness, and the content of consciousness is known as the _______.
self-awareness, self-concept.
define self concept?
is a knowledge representation or schema that contains knowledge about us, including our beliefs about
our personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles, as well as the knowledge that we exist as
individuals
make comparisons with other children, a process
known as?.
social comparison
mention the critique of Piaget?
- Development does not occur in distinct stages
- Children understand quite a bit more than they are given credit for
(adults might not be as developed cognitively) - Children are not as egocentric as once thought
- Theory of Sociocultural Learning (Vygotsky):
-Cognitive development not entirely “in” child; rather learning depends on cultural and educational experiences
-Extension: Community Learning Theory – where child is both “teacher” and “learner”
define attachment?
The emotional bonds that we develop with those with whom we feel closest,
and particularly the bonds that an infant develops with the mother or primary caregiver
harlow&harlow through their theory on attachment concluded that?
Both monkeys and human babies need
a secure base that allows them to feel safe.
acc to Harlow and Erickson , most important goal of infancy was the development of a?
basic sense
of trust in one’s caregivers
in harlow and Harlow theory the monkey reared?
reared in isolation
reared with surrogates-wire mesh or soft terrycloth
name the laboratory test created by Mary Ainsworth that measured an infant’s attachment to his or her parent.⭐️
THE STRANGE SITUATION(separation anxiety, 9-18 months)- a measure of attachment in young children in which the child’s behaviours
are assessed in a situation in which the caregiver and a stranger move in and out of the environment
Social development requires the development of a _______ from which children feel free to explore.
secure base
attachment style refer to?
the security of this base and more generally to the type of relationship that
people, and especially children, develop with those who are important to them
name the different kind of attachment relationships the children are categorized into?
secure attachment style
ambivalent attachment style
avoidant attachment style
disorganized attachment style
define secure attachment style?
explores freely while the mother is present and engages with the stranger
define anxious/ambivalent attachment style?
aka insecure-resistant
the child wary about the situation in general, particularly the stranger, and stays close or even clings to the mother rather than exploring the toys/caregiver and is impatient, uninterested, inconsistent
mother leaves- xtremely distressed
mother comes back- ambivalent
define avoidant attachment style
insecure-avoidant
avoid or ignore the mother, showing little emotion when the
mother departs or returns
disorganized attachment style?
no consistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation; child may cry, avoid mother, freeze, flop on floor
what are the percentages of the 4 attachment styles?
secure- 60%
disorganized- 15%
avoidant- 15%
ambivalent-10%
what are the factors that might contribute to attachment?
- Temperament (the innate personality characteristics of child)
- socialization(nature, who is doing the raising)
what are the types of attachments in adults?
secure attachment
anxious preoccupied attachment
avoidant attachment
fearful-avoidant attachment
define secure attachment in adults
support their partner, go to partner for comfort, relationship-honest, open equal
define anxious preoccupied attachments in adults?
desperate to form fantasy bonds, instead of love feel emotional hunger, clingy- their behaviour pushes their partner way
define avoidant attachment in adults
distance themselves from their partner, seek isolation and feel “pseudo-independent”, come as focused themselves, overly attending to their creature comforts
define fearful avoidant attachments in adults?
lives in ambivalent stage, afraid of being both too close to or too distant from others, attempt to keep their feelings at bay but are unable to, confused or unpredictable in their moods
what 2 studies are used to test hypotheses about development?
longitudinal research design
cross sectional
define the term longitudinal research design?
research designs in which individuals in the sample are followed and
contacted over an extended period of time, often over multiple developmental stages.
define cross sectional research design
age comparisons are made between samples of different people at different ages at one time
how is cross sectional research design confounded?
cohort effect- possibility that differences in cognition or behaviour at two points in time may be caused by differences that are unrelated to the changes in age. The differences might instead be due to environmental factors that affect an entire age group.
define morality
standards of behaviour that are generally agreed on within a culture to be right or proper(what is good or bad)
Lawrence Kohlberg (1984) argued that children learn their
moral values through ____________ and that moral development follows a series of _______.
active thinking and reasoning,
stages
name the 3 stages of moral thinking according to Kohlberg that children develop intellectually
pre-conventional level,
conventional level,
post-conventional level
critique of Kohlberg?
1.gender(carol Gilligan); perhaps oriented more towards boys
2. Moral reasoning is influenced by education, the social situation, and by culture and values
3.MUST distinguish between participant’s ACTUAL
rather than HYPOTHETICAL moral choices; there often is not much correlation between moral
reasoning and actual behaviour
teaching morality?
POWER ASSERTION- parents use force, threats, insults or other kind of power to get the child to obey
INDUCTION- parent appeals to the child’s good nature, empathy, love for the parent, and sense of responsibly to others
what does it means by parenting styles.
parental behaviours that determine
the nature of parent-child interactions and that guide their interaction with the child
what are the 4 types of parenting styles?
authoritarian parents
permissive parents
authoritative parents
rejecting neglecting parents
EXPLAIN AUTHORITARIAN PARENTING STYLE
-demanding but not responsive
-EAT YOUR FOOD!!
-never tell you WHY? when u ask a ques (because I said so!)
EXPLAIN AUTHORITATIVE PARENTING?
-demanding and responsive
-will tell you “why” you are to heave a certain way
DEFINE PERMISSIVE PARENTING STYLE
-make few demands and give lil punishment
-responsive in the sense that they generally allow their children to make their own rules
DEFINE REJECTING-NEGLECTING PARENTING
-undemanding and
unresponsive overall.
what was Alabama’s embryo ruling about?
embryos created through in vitro fertilization (IVF) should be considered children.
define adoloscence
the years between the onset of puberty and the beginning of adulthood
define puberty
a developmental period in which hormonal changes cause rapid physical alterations in the body, culminating in sexual maturity
Puberty begins when the_______ gland begins to stimulate the production of the male sex hormone testosterone in boys and the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone in girls.
pituitary
the release of sex hormones, triggers development of what characteristics?
primary sex characteristics- the sex organs concerned with reproduction- enlargement of testicles, penis, development of ovaries, uterus and vagina in girls.
what are secondary sex characteristics
features that distinguish the two sexes
from each other but are not involved in reproduction
-enlarged Adam’s apple, a deeper
voice, and pubic and underarm hair in boys, and enlargement of the breasts and hips and the appearance of pubic and
underarm hair in girls
what is considered as the first sign of puberty in girls/
enlargement of breasts(b/w 10 &12)
define menarche
first menstrual period, typically experienced at around 12 or 13 yrs age.
as teenagers mature, what area of brain is responsible for reasoning, planing and problem solving?
prefrontal cortex
what helps speed transition b/w diff regions of brain upon maturity?
myelin, fatty tissue that forms around axons and neurons
define egocentrism?
in which adolescents believe that they can do anything and that they know better than anyone else, including their parents
according to Erickson, the main social task of the adoloscents is the search for a ______–.
social identity- the part of the self-concept that is derived from one’s group memberships
what are the 4 identity categories to assess identity development according to James Marcia?
-identity-diffusion status:no firm commitment towards issue in question and not making progress towards it.
-foreclosure status: not engaged in any identity experimentations+ established an identity based on the choice/values of others.
-moratorium status: exploring various choices, not yet made clear commitment to any
-identity-achievement status: has attained a coherent and commited identity based on personal decisions.
define emerging adulthood
ages b/w 18 and middle or late 20s
stage of life between adolescence and full adulthood, During this time, individuals explore various roles, experiences, and responsibilities as they transition into independent adulthood.
Emerging adulthood focuses on identity issues and centres around what three main areas
love
work
worldview
what are the risk behaviours associated with EA
drinking, unprotected sex, most types of substance use, risky driving behaviour
is EA cross-cultural??
-Schlegal and Barry (1991) examined the presence of EA in 186 traditional non-Western cultures
-concluded that adolescence is universal, but the proof following adolescence was present only in 20% cultures
-for ex. marriage in these cultures usually takes place between ages 16 and 18 for girls and between 18 and 2 for boys
What factors might shorten emerging adolescence’s period of time or ensure that it is absent all together?
education
socioeconomic status
rural living
what are the 3 stages of adulthood?
early adulthood- b/w 25 and 45
middle adulthood- b/w 45 and 65
late adulthood- 60s
what are two Erik erikson’s life challenges that are met during early and middle adulthood which make substantial contributions to the society?
- we learn to give and receive love in a close, long-term relationship
- we develop an interest in guiding the development of the next generation, often by becoming parents.
which is the most effective parenting style?
authoritative style
define menopause
he cessation of the menstrual cycle (around 50)
at what stage a gradual decline in fertility in women is noted?
stages of both early and middle adulthood
Women whose menstrual cycles have
stopped for___ consecutive months are considered to have entered menopause
12
instead of losing the fertility completely what gradual changes do men experience during early and middle adulthood?
decrease in testosterone levels, sperm count, and speed of erection and ejaculation.
what does it means by a social clock?
the culturally preferred “right time” for major life events, such as moving out of the childhood house, getting married,
and having children
in what stage of adulthood, does muscle strength, reaction time, cardiac output, and sensory abilities begin to decline?
early and middle adulthood
now of the key signs of aging in women is?
decline in fertility, culminating in menopause
final life stage, beginning in the 60s, known
as ?
late adulthood.
older adults have more ______ intelligence.
crystallized intelligence — cognitive skills and information acquired over a lifetime; depends heavily on education and tends to remain stable over the lifetime
what is fluid intelligence and which age group is benefitted by it?
the ability to think and acquire information quickly and abstractly — which favour the young; typically declines in old age
dementia?
progressive neurological disease that includes loss of cognitive abilities significant enough to interfere with everyday
behaviours
Alzheimer’s disease
form of dementia that, over a period of years, leads to a loss of emotions, cognitions, and physical functioning, and that is ultimately fatal.
at what age is dementia or alzhemers disease more likely to be observed?
65 and older
likelihood of developing Alzheimer’s doubles about every____ years
after age 65.
five
After age 85, the risk of Alzheimers and dementia reaches nearly _____%per year
8%
Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease both
produce a gradual decline in functioning of the brain cells that produce the neurotransmitter __________.
acetylcholine
define AGEISM
refers to stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination based on age” (Nelson, 2002)
WHAT ARE THE Two significant social stages in late adulthood ??
- retirement
- dealing with grief and bereavement
what are the points about ageism to remember?
- ageist stereotypes and prejudice can be positive or negative
- ageism affects individuals at either end of the continuum
- age is a social marker similar to race and sex
- it is a social category dissimilar to race and sex in one unique way
what is the term given to biological
category of male or female, as defined by physical differences in genetic composition and in reproductive anatomy and
function.
sex
what is the term given to the cultural, social, and psychological meanings that are associated with
masculinity and femininity
gender
___________ are the
behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that are designated
as either masculine or feminine in a given culture
gender roles
_________ beliefs and expectations people hold about the typical characteristics, preferences, and behaviors of men and women.
gender stereotypes
_______ refers to their psychological sense
of being male or female
gender identity
_______ is the direction of their emotional and erotic attraction toward members of the opposite sex
person’s sexual orientation
Differences between males and females can be based on ?
-actual gender differences
-gender roles
-gender stereotypes
define gender constancy
one’s gender remains the same despite superficial changes in appearance or behavior or external attributes
what is the development intergroup theory about?
suggests that children pay close attention to gender cues from adults, forming rigid stereotypes that are hard to change.
what is social comparison theory?
-People naturally want to understand themselves better.
-When there are no clear standards, we compare ourselves to others.
-These comparisons can be either intentional or unintentional.
-We may be aware or unaware that we are making these comparisons.
what are the directionality and psychological implications of social comparison theory?
upward comparison- We tend to feel badly about ourselves *Linked with anxiety and depression amongst emerging adults due to comparisons
downward comparison- we tend to feel better about ourselves
lateral comparison- no consensus in the literature about how you feel (e.g. dove campaign)
name the psychological theories that partially explain how
children form their own gender roles after they learn to
differentiate based on gender.
- gender schema theory
- social learning theory
what is gender schema theory about?
argues that children are active learners who essentially socialize
themselves.
what is social learning theory about
Children learn gender roles by imitating adults and older children, reinforced by rewards and punishments.
why does social learning theory has less support than gender schema theory
Research suggests that parents treat male and female children similarly
Differential treatment on the basis of gender is also referred to ?
gender discrimination
When discrimination based on unwanted treatment related to sexual behaviors or appearance, it is called ?
sexual harassment
what is gender atypical
do not conform to gender
stereotypes
define ambivalent sexism?
acknowledges the mixed nature of gender attitudes, where women are linked to both positive and negative traits.
what are the 2 components that ambivalent sexism is divided into?
hostile sexism and benevolent sexism.
define hostile sexism
views women as inferior to men,
define benevolent sexism
sees women as needing protection and support from men
- receives more social acceptance
