Chapter 21: Regulation of Metabolism & Growth Flashcards
1
Q
What is metabolism, its 2 forms and examples of each?
A
Sum total of all cellular activities in the body
-
Anabolism: energy storage, tissue building
- Insulin, Sex steroids, Growth Hormone, Thyroxine
-
Catabolism: liberation of energy, tissue/substrate breakdown
- Glucagon, epinephrine, glucocorticoids, Growth Hormone, Thyroxine
2
Q
3 biomolecules
A
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
3
Q
Label the biomolecular pathway:
A
4
Q
Label the biomolecular pathway:
A
5
Q
How are lipids transported to cells?
A
In the blood
6
Q
lipoprotein particles that transfer dietary lipids?
structure they come from and where are they delivered?
A
chylomicrons
GI Tract –> Liver, adipose tissue & other cells
7
Q
type of lipoprotein that allows lipid transfer from liver –> body cells
A
Very-low density lipoprotein (VLDL)
8
Q
where is the lipoprotein lipase located?
A
inner surface of capillaries
9
Q
2 components of Triglycerides
A
Monoglyceride & 2 Fatty Acids
10
Q
What mechanism allows FAs to enter the cell?
A
Diffusion
11
Q
Where do Monoglycerides go for further metabolism?
A
Liver
12
Q
Summary of Biomolecules:
A
13
Q
What is the distribution of energy?
2 components of energy (include %’s)
A
Energy Input = Energy Output
Heat (60%) + Work (40%)
14
Q
3 forms of work
A
Mechanical, Chemical, Transport
15
Q
system that regulates the energy balance
A
Endocrine System
16
Q
A
17
Q
energy expended per unit time
A
Metabolic Rate
18
Q
rate of energy expenditure of a person awake, resting, lying down & fasted for 12 hours
A
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
19
Q
What does BMS represent?
Effect with increasing activity?
A
minimum energy expenditure necessary to maintain body functions; increases with increasing activity
20
Q
Is energy balance continuous?
Frequency of energy input?
A
No
Energy input is intermittent
21
Q
Absorptive State
A
3-4 hours following a meal; nutrients in the bloodstream are plentiful from absorption
22
Q
Postabsorptive State
A
between meals; energy stores must be mobilized
23
Q
Absorptive State:
- Energy input >/< output as nutrients are absorbed
- Primary energy source for cell?
- What happens to excess nutrients taken up?
A
Absorptive State:
- Energy input > output as nutrients are absorbed
- Primary energy source for cell = glucose
- Excess nutrients taken up will be stored
24
Q
In the absorptive state, the where is glycogen and triglycerides stored?
A
Glycogen Storage = Liver and Muscle
Triglyceride Storage = Adipose Tissue
25
**_Postabsorptive State:_**
* Energy input _\>/ output?_
* Where does glucose go and why?
* What occurs with stored nutrients?
**_Postabsorptive State:_**
* Energy input **output?**
* **Glucose is spared for the nervous system as other tissues use FAs or other sources for energy**
* **Stored nutrients are broken down and mobilized**
26
**_Absorptive State Reaction:_**
3 Physiological responses in the blood after the absroption of small nutrients?
27
**_Absorptive State Reactions:_**
Where will *glucose* be distributed/in what forms?
**_Glucose Distribution in Absorptive State Reactions_**
* Most body cells --\> CO2 + H2O + energy
* Liver & Muscle as glycogen
* Liver and adipose tissue as triglycerides (glycerol & FAs)
28
**_Absorptive State Reactions:_**
Where will *FAs* be distributed/in what forms?
After absorption of small nutrients in the blood, FAs will be distributed **to the liver and adipose tissues as triglycerides (Glycerol and FAs)**
29
**_Absorptive State Reactions:_**
Where will *Amino Acids* be distributed/in what forms?
**_Amino Acid Distribution in Absorptive State Reactions:_**
* Liver as FAs
* Muscle & other cells as proteins
30
Amount of glycogen storage in the liver and muscles
500g
31
Amount of triglyceride stored in adipose tissue
unlimited
32
In the Postabsorptive state, what is the initial stimulus and location of physiological responses (6)?
In the postabsorptive state, macromolecules are stored in the
* Muscles and other cells
* Adipose Tissue
* Liver
* Blood
* Nervous & Non-Nervous Tissue
33
**_Postabsorptive State Reaction:_**
When stored molecules get distributed into *muscle* *and other cells*, what is the form of its physiological response?
Result?
**_Postabsorptive State Reaction:_**
Physiological Response: Proteins --\> AA
Result: AA in the blood and increase in CO2 + NH3 + H2O + energy in **non**-nervous tissue
34
**_Postabsorptive State Reaction:_**
When stored molecules get distributed into *Adipose Tissue,* what is the initial physiological response?
Resulting response?
**_Postabsorptive State Reaction:_**
Physiological Response: Triglycerides (FAs & glycerol)
Resulting Response: Increased FAs in the blood, Ketones in the liver & blood, and increase in CO2 + NH3 + H2O + energy in non-nervous tissue
35
**_Postabsorptive State Reaction:_**
When stored molecules get distributed into the *Liver,* what is the physiological and resulting response?
**_Postabsorptive State Reaction:_**
Physiological Response: Glycogen --\> Glucose
Result: increased glucose in the blood & increased CO2 + H2O + energy in nervous tissue
36
**_Postabsorptive State Reaction:_**
When stored molecules get distributed into the *Muscle,* what is the physiological and resulting response?
**_Postabsorptive State Reaction:_**
Physiological response: Glycogen --\> lactate & pyruvate
Resulting Response: glucose in the liver, increased glucose in the blood, and increased CO2 + H2O + energy in nervous tissue
37
General role of insulin in metabolism
absorptive state
38
General role of glucagon in metabolism
Postabsorptive state
39
How does insulin and glucagon stabilize blood glucose levels?
Negative feedback control
40
41
* Insulin secretion *increases* during _________ state
* What increases in plasma?
* Nervous system involved?
* Peptide involved?
* Insulin secretion *increases* during **absorptive** state
* **Glucose & [AA]** increases in plasma
* **Parasympathetic NS**
* **Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)**
42
* Insulin secretion *decreases* during ________ state
* NS involved?
* Hormone involved?
* Insulin secretion *decreases* during **postabsorptive** state
* **Sympathetic NS**
* **Epinephrine**
43
**_Actions of insulin:_**
Increased insulin secretion in beta cells in the pancreas affect what body systems (4)?
**_Actions of insulin:_**
Increased insulin secretion in beta cells in the pancreas affect
* Most tissues
* Adipose tissue
* Liver & Muscle
* Muscle
44
Affect of increased insulin secretion *in most tissues?*
* *Increased* glucose uptake (except brain, liver, exercising muscle)
* *Increased* AA uptake
* *Increased* protein synthesis
* *Decreased* protein breakdown
45
Affects of increased insulin secretion in *Adipose Tissue:*
* *Increased* FA & triglyceride synthesis
* *Decreased* lipolysis
46
Affects of increased insulin secretion in *liver and muscle:*
* *Increased* glycogen synthesis
* *Decreased* glycogenolysis
47
Affects of increased insulin secretion in the *liver:*
* *Increased* FA & triglyceride synthesis
* *Decreased* gluconeogenesis
48
**_Glucagon:_**
49
Glucagon Secretion increases during __________ state.
NS?
Hormone?
Glucagon Secretion increases during **postabsorptive** state.
## Footnote
**Sympathetic NS**
**Epinephrine**
50
Glucagon secretion *decreases* during ________ state.
What increases in the plasma?
Glucagon secretion *decreases* during **absorptive** state.
**Glucose** increases in the plasma
51
Increased glucagon in alpha cells in the pancreas affect what systems (2)?
Liver & Adipose tissue
52
Affects of increased glucagon secretion in the *liver*:
* *Increased* glycogenolysis
* *Decreased* glycogen synthesis
* *Increased* gluconeogenesis
* *Increased* Ketone synthesis
* *Increased* protein breakdown
* *Decreased* protein synthesis
53
Affects of increased glucagon secretion in *adipose tissue:*
* *Increased* lipolysis
* *Decreased* triglyceride synthesis
54
**_Regulation of blood glucose levels:_**
Normal:
Hyperglycemia:
Hypoglycemia:
**_Regulation of blood glucose levels:_**
_Normal_: **70-100 mg/dL**
_Hyperglycemia_: **glucose \> 140 mg/dL**
_Hypoglycemia_: **glucose \< 60 mg/dL**
55
What maintains blood glucose levels?
The actions of insulin and glucagon
56
**_Glucose Regulation via Insulin:_**
What increases insulin secretion in beta cells in the pancreas?
**_Glucose Regulation via Insulin:_**
Increased plasma glucose
57
**_Glucose Regulation via Insulin:_**
Affect what body systems (3)?
**_Glucose Regulation via Insulin:_**
Affects Most tissues, liver & muscle, liver
58
The affects of glucose regulation via insulin in *most tissues:*
*Increased* glucose uptake into cells
59
The affects of glucose regulation via insulin in the *liver and muscle:*
* *Increased* glycogen synthesis
* *Decreased* Glycogenolysis
60
Affects of glucose regualtion via insulin in the *liver:*
*Decreased* gluconeogenesis
61
Final result of glucose regulation via insulin?
Decreased plasma glucose and negative feedback
62
**_Glucose Regulation via Glucagon:_**
Effect of decreased plasma glucose on glucagon secretion in alpha cells in the pancreas?
**_Glucose Regulation via Glucagon:_**
Decreased plasma glucose *increases* glucagon secretion in alpha cells in the pancreas
63
**_Glucose Regulation via Glucagon:_**
Affects what 2 body systems?
**_Glucose Regulation via Glucagon:_**
Affects the liver and adipose tissue
64
Affects of Glucose Regulation via Glucagon in the *liver:*
*Increased* gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis = *increased* plasma glucose, forming negative feedback
65
Affects of glucose regualtion via insulin in *adipose tissue* and the final result:
*Increased* lipolysis in adipose tissue --\> *increased* plasma FAs to result in the spread of glucose
66
Characteristics of high protein, low carbohydrate diet/meal
Increased blood AA
67
Affects of increased blood AA on insulin and glucagon?
Increased insulin and gucagon
68
Subsequent steps for increased blood AAs and the increase in insulin release?
increases in AA uptake and glucose uptake (dangerous if carb intake is low)
69
Increased blood AA results in increased glucagon release resulting in?
Seemingly counterproductivity
low carb diet = low blood glucose
More glucagon stimulated by AAs; counteracts insulin effect to serve to maintain proper blood glucose levels
70
condition of impaired energy metabolism due to insulin deficiency or deficient insulin response
Diabetus Mellitus
71
primary sign of diabetus mellitus
major type of each?
hyperglycemia
Type 1: Early childhood, insulin production
Type 2: Later in life, insulin response
72
sigmoidal shaped curve that encompasses the the postnatal and pubertal growth spurts labeled by the percentage of total growth & age of individuals
73
2 step processes of growth?
List
1. **Stimulators**
1. ****GH, Somatomedins (insulin-like Growth factors), Insulin, Thyroid hormones, sex hormones
2. **Growth**
1. ****# of cells, size of some cells, bone length/thickness
74
**_Actions of Growth Hormone (GH):_**
What major structure controls the actions of GH?
Hypothalamus
75
**_Actions of Growth Hormone (GH):_**
Initial stimuli in the hypothalamus activates what response and where?
**_Actions of Growth Hormone (GH):_**
Initial *increase* in GHRH and *decrease* in GHIH (somatostatin secretion) activates *increased* GH secretion in the Anterior Pituitary
76
**_Actions of Growth Hormone (GH):_**
What activates the short loop negative feedback and to where?
*Increased* GH secretion in the anterior pituitary stimulates a short loop negative feedback to the Hypothalamus.
77
**_Actions of Growth Hormone (GH):_**
*Increased* GH secretion activates what 4 structures?
Liver, many tissue, adipose tissue, & muscle
78
**_Actions of Growth Hormone (GH):_**
Response in the *liver* that activates long loop feedback, to where?
Final result?
*Increase* in insulin-like growth factor secretion activates long loop negative feedback to the Anterior Pituitary or Hypothalamus.
Final Result of Liver: activation of many tissues to *increase* cell division & other growth promoting events
79
**_Actions of Growth Hormone (GH):_**
Effect of increased secretion in *many tissues:*
**_Actions of Growth Hormone (GH):_**
* Incease* in protein synthesis
* Increase* in insulin-like factor secretion
80
**_Actions of Growth Hormone (GH):_**
Effect of increased secretions in *Adipose Tissue:*
*Decrease* in glucose uptake
## Footnote
*Increase in lipolysis*
81
**_Actions of Growth Hormone (GH):_**
Affect secretions have on *muscle*:
*Decreased glucose uptake*
Increase AA uptake
82
**_Actions of Growth Hormone (GH):_**
Overall result of secretions on *many tissues, adipose tissue* and *muscle:*
Provide energy and substrates for growth
83
calcification
depositing of calcium phosphate to allow osteoblasts form osteoid
84
cell that makes bone through calcification
osteoblasts
85
term for bone?
osteoid
86
cell that resorbs bone through secretionof acid an enzymes
osteoclasts
87
cell that maintains a surrounding osteoid
osteocyte
88
bone growth formation of cells?
osteoblasts --\> osteocyte
89
dwarfism, gigantism & acromegaly (
dwarfism: *decreased* GH secretion in children
gigantism: *increased* GH secretion in children
acromegaly: *increased* GH secretion in _adults_
"square jaw effect": thickening of GH, due to excess uptake by body builders
90
Other hormone affecting growth, required for the synthesis of GH \* permissive for GH actions
thryoid hormone
91
Other hormone affecting growth, permissive for GH actions
insulin
92
Other hormone affecting growth: little role in childhood growth, important for pubertal growth spurt, actively promotes growth during puberty
Sex hormones
93
Other hormone that inhibits growth; example when taken
Glucocorticoids; taken exogenously to decrease chances of new organ rejection in surgery
94
location of thyroxine production
thyroid follicles
95
active & inactive form of thyroxine
triiodothyronine: *active, storage* form
tetraiodothyronine: *inactive, carrier* form
96
7 Step Synthesis & secretion of thyroid hormones
97
**_Secretion of Thyroid Hormones:_**
Location and initial stimulus?
Location & initial physiological response?
Location & next cascade of physiological responses due to specific hormone release?
**_Secretion of Thyroid Hormones:_**
1. *Increased* TRH secretion in Hypothalamus
2. Stimulates *increased* TSH secretion in Anterior Pituitary
3. Stimulates i*ncreased* T3 and T4 secretion in the Thyroid Gland
1. Final Result: T3 stimulates *increased* T3 in plasma
2. T4 stimulates *increased* T4 in plasma
1. T4 stimulates Liver, kidneys, & other target cells to produce T3
2. Final Result: T3 stimulates *increased* T3 in plasma
98
**_Secretion of Cortisol:_**
Describe the initial stimuli, 2 physiological responses and locations and location/final result
1. Initial stimuli: stress and circadian rhythm
2. *Increased* CRH secretion in the Hypothalamus
3. *Increased* ACTH secretion in the anterior pituitary
4. Final Result: *Increased* cortisol secretion in the Adrenal Cortex (negative feedback to Anterior Pituitary or hypothalamus)
99
2 functions of the Stress hormone
* Mobilizes energy stores
* Suppresses immune response
100
General Adaptation Syndrome?
Functions?
Response to Stress- Flight or Flight
* Increased* cortisol secretion
* Increased* sympathetic activity
* Increased* epinephrine secretion
* Increased* ADH release
* Increased* angiotensin 2 production
Mobilize energy stores & maintain blood pressure
