Chapter 2: Understanding Psychological Disorders: The Neuropsychosocial Approach Flashcards
Etiology
The factors that lead a person to develop a psychological disorder
Cerebral cortex
The outer layer of cells on the surface of the brain
Neurons
Brain cells that process information related to physical, mental, and emotional functioning
Brian circuits
Sets of connected neurons that work together to accomplish a basic process
Brain systems
Sets of brain circuits that work together to accomplish a complex function
Action pontential
The wave of chemical activity that moves from the cell body down the axon when a neuron fires
Synapse
The place where the tip of the axon of one neuron send signals to another neuron
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals that are release by the terminal buttons and cross the synaptic cleft.
Genes
segments of DNA that control the production of particular proteins and other substances
Genotype
the sum of an organism’s genes
Phenotype
the sum of an organism’s observable traits
Complex Inheritance
The transmission of traits that are expressed along a continuum by the interaction of sets of genes
Behavioral genetics
The field that investigates the degree to which the variability of characteristics in a population arises from genetic versus environmental factors
Heritability
An estimate of how much the variation in a characteristic within a population (in a specific environment) can be attributed to genetics
Monozygotic twins
Twins who have basically the same genetic makeup because they began life as a single fertilized egg, which then divided into two embryos, also referred to as identical twins
Dizygotic twins
Twins who developed from two fertilized eggs and so have the same overlap in genes (50%) as do siblings not conceived at the same time; fraternal twins
Classical conditioning
A type of learning that occurs when two stimuli are paired so that a neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus that elevates a reflexive behaviors, also referred to as Pavlovian conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that reflexively elicits a behavior
Unconditioned response (UCR)
A behavior that is reflexively elicited by a stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS):
A neutral stimulus that, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit the reflexive behavior
Conditioned response (CR)
A response that comes to be elicited by the previously neutral stimulus that has become conditioned stimulus
Conditioned emotional responses
Emotions and emotion-related behaviors that are classically conditioned
Stimulus generalization
The process whereby responses come to be elicited by stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
Operant conditioning
A type of learning in which the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated depends on the consequences associated with the behavior
Reinforcement
The process by which the consequence of behavior increases the likelihood of the behavior’s recurrence
Positive reinforcement
The type of reinforcement that occurs when desired reinforcer is received after behavior, which makes the behavior more likely to occur again in the future
Negative reinforcement
The type of reinforcement that occurs when an aversive or uncomfortable stimulus is removed after a behavior, which makes that behavior more likely to be produces again in the future
Punishment
The process by which an event or object that is the consequence of a behavior decreases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again
Positive punishment
The type of punishment that takes place when a behavior is followed by an undesirable consequence, which makes the behavior less likely to recur
Negative punishment
The type of punishment that takes place when a behavior is followed by the removal of a pleasant or desired event or circumstance, which decreases the probability of the behavior’s recurrence
Learned helplessness
The state of “giving up” that arises when an animal or person is in an aversive situation where it seems that no action can be effective
Observational learning
The process of learning through watching what happens to others; also referred to as modeling
Cognitive distortions
Dysfunctional, maladaptive thoughts that are not accurate reflections of reality and contribute to psychological disorders
Emotion
A short-lived experience evoked by a stimulus that produces a mental response, a typical behavior, and a positive or negative subjective feeling
Affect
An emotion that is associated with a particular idea or behavior, similar to an attitude
Inappropriate affect
An expression of emotion that is not appropriate to what a person is saying or not appropriate to the situation
Flat affect
A lack of, or considerably diminished, emotional expression, such as occurs when someone speaks robotically and shows little facial expression
Mood
A persistent emotion that is not attached to a stimulus; it exists in the background and influences mental processes, mental contents, and behaviors
Temperament
The various aspects of personality that reflect a person’s typical emotional state and emotional reactivity (including the speed and strength of reactions to stimuli)
High expressed emotion
A family interaction style characterized by hostility, unnecessary criticism, or emotional over involvement
Social support
The comfort and assistance that an individual receives through interactions with others
Labile affect
Affect that changes inappropriately rapidly
Reuptake
The process of moving leftover neurotransmitter molecules in the synapse back into the sending neuron
Hormones
Chemicals that are released directly into the bloodstream that activate or alter the activity
Social causation hypothesis
Daily stressors of urban life, especially as experienced by people in a lower socioeconomic class, trigger mental illness in those who are vulnerable
Social selection hypothesis
People who are mentally ill “drift” to a lower socioeconomic level because of their impairments; also referred to as social drift
All-or-nothing thinking
(Cognitive distortion) seeing things in black and white
Overgeneralization
(Cognitive distortion) seeing a single negative event as part of a never-ending pattern of such events
Mental filter
(Cognitive distortion) focusing too strongly on negative qualities or events
Disqualifying the positive
(Cognitive distortion) not recognizing or accepting positive experiences or events, thus emphasizing the negative
Jumping to conclusions
(Cognitive distortion) making an unsubstantiated negative interpretation of events
Personalization
(Cognitive distortion) seeing yourself as the cause of a negative event when in fact you were not actually responsible
Novelty seeking
(Cloninger’s Four Temperaments) searching out novel stimuli and reacting positively to them; high levels can lead to being impulsive, avoiding frustration, and easily getting angry
Harm avoidance
(Cloninger’s Four Temperaments) reacting very negatively to harm and avoiding it whenever possible
Reward dependence
(Cloninger’s Four Temperaments) degree to which past behaviors that have led to desired outcomes in the past are repeated
Persistence
(Cloninger’s Four Temperaments) making continued efforts in the face of frustration when attempting to accomplish something
Cloninger’s Four Temperaments
- novelty seeking
- persistence
- reward dependence
- harm avoidance
