Chapter 2: Theory and Research Flashcards
Theory
A set of ideas or concepts that are used to explain a set of observed facts.
Evolution
The development of a species to its present state, which involves adaptations to its environment
Natural selection
“survival of the fittest”
Better-adapted members are more likely to survive to reproduce and transmit their traits to succeeding generations.
Sociobiology
The idea that social behaviour results from evolution
short-term mating strategies
(e.g., casual sex with multiple partners)
Long-term mating strategies
(e.g., monogamous relationships over an extended period of time).
erotic plasticity
The influence of social and cultural forces on sex drive and expressions of sexual behaviour.
Psychoanalysis
The theory of personality originated by SIgmund Freud, which proposes that human behaviour represents the outcome of clashing inner forces
Erogenous zones
the idea that many parts of the body, not just the genitals, are responsive to sexual stimulation.
Psychosexual development
In psychoanalytic theory, the process by which sexual feelings shift from one erogenous zone to another
Oedipus complex
A conflict of the phallic sage in which the boy wishes to possess his mother sexually and perceives his father as a rival in love
Learning theories
behaviourism, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning theory, social–cognitive theory, and sexual script theory
Behaviourism
A psychological approach to understanding learning, focussing on observable behaviors and emphasizing the role of environmental factors or external stimuli in shaping behaviour
Classical conditioning
A process by which an association is formed between a naturally occuring stimulus and a previously neutral one
Operant conditioning
A process by which an individual changes his or her behaviour as a result of consequences (reinforcement or punishment)
rewards and punishment
Social learning theory
Learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social environment, primarily focussing on rewards and punishment as shaping behaviour
Social-cognitive theory
A cognitively oriented learning theory in which observational learning interacts with behaviour, the environment, and cognition
Social–cognitive theorists propose that children acquire the gender roles deemed appropriate in a society through reinforcement of gender-appropriate behaviour and through observing the gender-role behaviour of parents, peers, and other models from television,
Seuxal script theory
A theory that examines sexuality from the standpoint of culturally learned scripts that specify how men and women should behave sexually
Sexual scripts three levels
cultural, interpersonal, and intrapsychic.
At the cultural level, the individual learns general social rules for how sexual interactions should unfold. At the interpersonal level, people apply the cultural scripts they have learned to their own sexual interactions with partners, and at the intrapsychic level, individuals cognitively internalize the cultural scripts and personalize them according to their own values, preferences, and circumstances (
Traditional sexual script
Men take an assertive and active role in heterosexual interaction while women take a receptive and passive role
Social exchange theory
A theory that examines sexuality within relationships in terms of rewards and costs
Social exchange theory contains three basic assumptions:
(a) Social behaviour is a series of exchanges;
(b) individuals attempt to maximize their rewards and minimize their costs; and
(c) when individuals receive rewards from others, they feel obligated to reciprocate”
sexual rewards: emotional closeness, physical pleasure
Sexual costs: not in the mood sex
Critical theories
feminist theories, queer theory, and intersectionality.
Feminist theory
Focuses on the subordination of women and the unequal status of girls and women in society
Heterosexism
Prejudice or discrimination based on the assumption that heterosexuality is the “normal” state of being
Sexual objectification
Treating a person as an object for the purposes of sexual gratification
Queer theory
Challenges binary categories for gender and sexuality and provides a framework for analyzing the ways that institutions and social norms privilege some people and identities over others
Intersectionality
Theoretical perspective that considers multiple, intersecting social categories (eg gender and race) and how these affects access to power and resources in society
Empirical approach
Derived from or based observation and experiment
The scientific method
one systematic way of gathering scientific evidence and testing assumptions through research
The scientific method order
1) Formulating a research question
2) Framing the research question in the form of a hypothesis.
3) Testing the hypothesis.
4) Drawing conclusions.
Hypothesis
A precise prediction about behaviour that is often derived from theory and past research
Approaches to Research Methods
Research can be organized into three approaches: quantitative research, qualitative research, and research that involves a combination of these, called mixed methods.
Quantitative research
Collection of numerical data to produce statistics
Statistical significance
A relationship found between variables that is likely real or ‘true’ and is not attributed to chance
Qualitative research
The use of interviews, focus groups, diaries, or other methods to record people’s attitudes and experiences
Mixed methods research
The mixing of qualitative and quantitative data methods, methodologies, and / or paradigms in a research study or set of related studies
