Chapter 2: Theory and Research Flashcards
Theory
A set of ideas or concepts that are used to explain a set of observed facts.
Evolution
The development of a species to its present state, which involves adaptations to its environment
Natural selection
“survival of the fittest”
Better-adapted members are more likely to survive to reproduce and transmit their traits to succeeding generations.
Sociobiology
The idea that social behaviour results from evolution
short-term mating strategies
(e.g., casual sex with multiple partners)
Long-term mating strategies
(e.g., monogamous relationships over an extended period of time).
erotic plasticity
The influence of social and cultural forces on sex drive and expressions of sexual behaviour.
Psychoanalysis
The theory of personality originated by SIgmund Freud, which proposes that human behaviour represents the outcome of clashing inner forces
Erogenous zones
the idea that many parts of the body, not just the genitals, are responsive to sexual stimulation.
Psychosexual development
In psychoanalytic theory, the process by which sexual feelings shift from one erogenous zone to another
Oedipus complex
A conflict of the phallic sage in which the boy wishes to possess his mother sexually and perceives his father as a rival in love
Learning theories
behaviourism, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning theory, social–cognitive theory, and sexual script theory
Behaviourism
A psychological approach to understanding learning, focussing on observable behaviors and emphasizing the role of environmental factors or external stimuli in shaping behaviour
Classical conditioning
A process by which an association is formed between a naturally occuring stimulus and a previously neutral one
Operant conditioning
A process by which an individual changes his or her behaviour as a result of consequences (reinforcement or punishment)
rewards and punishment
Social learning theory
Learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social environment, primarily focussing on rewards and punishment as shaping behaviour
Social-cognitive theory
A cognitively oriented learning theory in which observational learning interacts with behaviour, the environment, and cognition
Social–cognitive theorists propose that children acquire the gender roles deemed appropriate in a society through reinforcement of gender-appropriate behaviour and through observing the gender-role behaviour of parents, peers, and other models from television,
Seuxal script theory
A theory that examines sexuality from the standpoint of culturally learned scripts that specify how men and women should behave sexually
Sexual scripts three levels
cultural, interpersonal, and intrapsychic.
At the cultural level, the individual learns general social rules for how sexual interactions should unfold. At the interpersonal level, people apply the cultural scripts they have learned to their own sexual interactions with partners, and at the intrapsychic level, individuals cognitively internalize the cultural scripts and personalize them according to their own values, preferences, and circumstances (
Traditional sexual script
Men take an assertive and active role in heterosexual interaction while women take a receptive and passive role
Social exchange theory
A theory that examines sexuality within relationships in terms of rewards and costs
Social exchange theory contains three basic assumptions:
(a) Social behaviour is a series of exchanges;
(b) individuals attempt to maximize their rewards and minimize their costs; and
(c) when individuals receive rewards from others, they feel obligated to reciprocate”
sexual rewards: emotional closeness, physical pleasure
Sexual costs: not in the mood sex
Critical theories
feminist theories, queer theory, and intersectionality.
Feminist theory
Focuses on the subordination of women and the unequal status of girls and women in society
Heterosexism
Prejudice or discrimination based on the assumption that heterosexuality is the “normal” state of being
Sexual objectification
Treating a person as an object for the purposes of sexual gratification
Queer theory
Challenges binary categories for gender and sexuality and provides a framework for analyzing the ways that institutions and social norms privilege some people and identities over others
Intersectionality
Theoretical perspective that considers multiple, intersecting social categories (eg gender and race) and how these affects access to power and resources in society
Empirical approach
Derived from or based observation and experiment
The scientific method
one systematic way of gathering scientific evidence and testing assumptions through research
The scientific method order
1) Formulating a research question
2) Framing the research question in the form of a hypothesis.
3) Testing the hypothesis.
4) Drawing conclusions.
Hypothesis
A precise prediction about behaviour that is often derived from theory and past research
Approaches to Research Methods
Research can be organized into three approaches: quantitative research, qualitative research, and research that involves a combination of these, called mixed methods.
Quantitative research
Collection of numerical data to produce statistics
Statistical significance
A relationship found between variables that is likely real or ‘true’ and is not attributed to chance
Qualitative research
The use of interviews, focus groups, diaries, or other methods to record people’s attitudes and experiences
Mixed methods research
The mixing of qualitative and quantitative data methods, methodologies, and / or paradigms in a research study or set of related studies
Populations
A defined group of individuals known to have similar characteristics
Sample
Part of a population selected for study
Representative sample
A research sample of participants who accurately represent the population of interest.
Generalize
Use information from a particular case or sample to draw conclusions about a larger phenomenon or population
Random sample (sampling)
A sample in which every member of a population has an equal chance of participating
Stratified random sample (sampling)
A random sample in which known subgroups of a population are represented in proportion to their numbers within a population
Volunteer bias
Systematic error due to differences in those who want to participate and those who do not (in sexualy it is usually those who are more sexually experienced and comfortable with the topic)
Variables
A person, place, thing, or phenomena researchers attempt to measure in research
Demographics
variables such as age or religion.
Variables that are commonly used to explain sexual behaviour
biological (e.g., age, sex, health status), psychological (e.g., anxiety, self-confidence, knowledge, skills), and demographic or sociological (e.g., educational level, socioeconomic status, ethnicity).
Correlation
statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Correlation coefficient
A stat that expresses the strength and direction (+ or - ) of the relationship between two variables
Surveys
gather information about behaviour through a series of questions delivered in questionnaires.
Validity
The degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure
-Variable accurately reflects concept being produced or measured
Reliability
The consistency or accuracy of a measure
Issues with the survey method
samples are biased by the inclusion of large numbers of volunteers, who are generally willing to take time to participate. Volunteers for sex surveys also tend to be more sexually permissive and liberal-minded than non-volunteers.
Social desirability
A response bias caused by a subect’s tendency to provide a socially acceptable answer to a questionnaire or interview question
Vasocongestion
Blood flow to the genitals
Myotonia
Muscle tension
Treatment
An experimental intervention (such as a drug test) that is administered to participants so its effects can be observed
External validity
The degree to which the results of a study can generalized to other situations and people
Experiment
Scientific method that seeks to confirm cause and effect relationships by manipulating independent variable and observing their effect on dependant variables
Independant variable
A condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so its effects can be observed
Dependent variable
The condition that is believed to be affected by the independent variable. The results of the study are addressed by measuring changes in the dependant variable
Experimental group
Receive the treatment
Control group
Do not get treatment
Selection factor
A research bias that may operate when people are allowed to determine whether they will receive an experimental treatment
Interview research
involves asking a set of questions to an individual, to elicit descriptions of their thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or experiences (though sometimes quantitative data are collected using interviews
Focus group
Group of individuals brought together to share their attitudes about a specific topic
Mixed research (both quan and qual)
These methods include case studies, naturalistic observation, ethnographic observation, and participant observation.
Case study
These methods include case studies, naturalistic observation, ethnographic observation, and participant observation.
Observer bias
A bias whereby researchers influence the participants in a study or interpret the results of a study incorrectly as a result of their own assumptions
Naturalistic observation (field study)
researchers directly observe behaviour where it happens
Ecological validity
The extent to which research findings would generalize in everyday life
Replicate
Reproducing study methods and conditions
Ethnographic observation
provides data about sexual behaviours and customs within various ethnic groups
Participant observation
Study method in which observers interact with their subjects as they collect data (person works at strip club and finds results)
Naturalistic, ethnographic, and participant observation research are all limited
sexual behaviours often occur in private and it can be difficult to gain access to situations where they are taking place
Exposing participants to harm
It is clearly unethical to conduct research that harms study participants
Confidentiality
Researchers can do many things to ensure confidentiality for participants. They can make questionnaires anonymous. They can withhold subjects’ identities from interviewers.
Informed consent
Agreement to participate in research after receiving adequate information about the purposes and nature of the study and about its potential risks and benefits
The use of deception.
Ethical conflicts may emerge when experiments require that participants not know all about their purposes and methods.
Consequences of no good data
Reliance on theory, rather than data/ facts
-many different explanations fit (need proper research)
People who do not typically participate in sex research
More religious, less educated, ethnic minorities, lower socioeconomic status
How to minimize distortions (reliability / validity)
- Emphasize that scientific value is dependant on accuracy
- anonymity
- bogus pipeline (you lie and we will know)
- ask participants to rate their honesty
- cross check to detect distortions
Extraneous Variables
Rapport with the interviewer (good rapport = better answer)
Wording of the question
Ethical issues
- Respect welfare and dignity of participants and minimize harm
- Ensure debriefs are there
It is NOT unethical to deceive in psychology
Facts
- can’t deceive if it is going to harm them
- debrief is needed
Clinical research
Study individuals seeking treatment
-ex child molsters, homoesexuals, transsexuals
Clinical research problems
Deciding what is healthy vs unhealthy
- Cultural decisions with their sexual preferences
- those who seek treatment are only those who participate in research (straight people wouldn’t go, no be represented)
Observational Research
Watching sexual behaviour (natural settings such as bars or nightclubs)
How does knowing you are being watched dictate your behavior
Actual natural / act differently
Ways to increase accuracy (for surveys)
Wording of question
Ensuring anonymity
Non-judgmental atmosphere
WHat is the most infrequent source of information on sexuality?
Experiments (however can be the most powerful research method when done correctly due to cause and effect)
Abbey Reading r3
Female agent programmed to accept sexual activities initiated depending on the type of activity an when in the dating sequence introduced
- programmed to refuse other activities
- has good mundane realism (similar to real world)
- has good experimental realism (participants felt engaged)
- strong validity
Are questionnaires an experiment?
NO, don’t manipulate IV, don’t randomly assign , and don’t hold other variables in control
Convergent validity
refers to the degree to which two measures of constructs that theoretically should be related, are in fact related.
