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Human Anatomy & Physiology > Chapter 2 The Chemistry of Life > Flashcards

Chapter 2 The Chemistry of Life Flashcards

1
Q

Matter

A

Anything that has mass and occupies space
Solid, liquid, gas

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2
Q

Chemistry

A

Study of matter and its interactions

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3
Q

Atoms

A

smallest unit of matter that retains original properties. made up of:

  • Subatomic particles
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4
Q

Subatomic Particles

A

Protons, Neutrons, Electrons

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5
Q

Protons (p+)

A

In atomic nucleus
-Positively charged

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6
Q

Neutrons (n0)

A

In atomic nucleus, slightly larger than protons
-no charge

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7
Q

Electrons (e-)

A

Outside atomic nucleus
-negatively charged

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8
Q

Atomic Nucleus

A

Central core of atom

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9
Q

Neutral

A

Atoms are electrically neutral:
-no charge
- number or protons and electrons are equal.

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10
Q

Electron shells

A

-regions surrounding atomic nucleus
-where electrons exist
- 3 main electron shells
Some atoms may have more than 3 shells

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11
Q

1st electron shell

A

Closest to nucleus - 2 electrons

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12
Q

2nd electron shell

A

8 electrons

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13
Q

3rd electron shell

A

18 electrons, “satisfied” with 8

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14
Q

Atomic Number

A

number of protons in atomic nucleus; defines every element

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15
Q

Element

A

substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substance by chemical means. (on periodic table)

-Total number of protons predicts element

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16
Q

Periodic Table

A

List elements by increasing atomic numbers

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17
Q

4 Major Elements

A

Human body is made up of:
1. Hydrogen
2. Oxygen
3. Carbon
4. Nitrogen
5. 7 mineral elements and 13 trace elements

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18
Q

Mass Number

A

sum of all protons and neutrons in atomic nucleus

-Protons are at the bottom / next to element symbol
-Neutrons are on the top / next to element symbol

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19
Q

Isotopes

A

Atom with same atomic number (number of protons) but different mass number (number of neutrons)

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20
Q

Radioisotopes

A

Unstable isotopes. High energy or radiation released by radioactive decay, allows isotope to assume more stable form

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21
Q

Mixtures

A

Atoms of two or more elements physically intermixed without changing chemical of atoms

1.Suspensions
2. Colloids
3.Solutions

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22
Q

Suspension

A

Ex: blood in suspension
- Large, unevenly distributed particles
-Will settle out when left undisturbed

Generally a liquid mixed with solid

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23
Q

Colloids

A

Ex: milk
-Small, evenly distributed particles
-Will not settle out

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24
Q

Solutions

A

Ex: glucose in water
-extremely small, evenly distributed particles
-will not settle

  1. Solute
  2. Solvent
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25
Q

Solute

A

Substance dissolved
ex: sugar in water

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26
Q

Solvent

A

Substance that dissolves solute
ex: water

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27
Q

Chemical Bond

A

-Energy relationship or attractive force between atoms
-Formed when valence electrons of atoms interact

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28
Q

Molecule

A

formed by chemical bonding between two or more atoms of the same element

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29
Q

Compound

A

formed when two or more atoms from different elements combine by chemical bonding
-Contain both metal and nonmetal ions

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30
Q

Valence Electrons

A

Determine how an atom interacts with other atoms

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31
Q

Octet Rule

A

Atom is most stable when 8 electrons in valence shell

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32
Q

Duet Rule

A

Atoms with 5 or fewer electrons- atom is most stable when valence electron shell holds 2 electrons

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33
Q

Ionic Bond

A

(ions) Electrons are transferred from metal atoms to nonmetal atom:
-cations
-anions

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34
Q

Cations

A

Positively charged ion
-Metal loses one or more electrons

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35
Q

Anion

A

Negatively charged ion
-Nonmetal gains one or more electrons

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36
Q

Covalent Bonds

A

Strongest bond. two or more nonmetals share electrons

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37
Q

Electronegativity

A

Protons attract electrons
-increase from bottom left to upper right of periodic table (Fluorine is the most electronegative element)

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38
Q

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

A

Two nonmetals in molecule:
-similar or identical electronegativities
-pull with equal force

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39
Q

Nonpolar molecules occur in 3 situations

A

-Atoms sharing electrons are same element
-Arrangement of atoms makes one atom unable to pull more strongly than another atom
-Bond between carbon and hydrogen

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40
Q

Polar Covalent Bonds

A

Two Nonmetals with
-different electronegativities
-share electrons unequally
-form polar molecules

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41
Q

Partially negative

A

Atom with higher electronegativity pulls shared electrons close to itself

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42
Q

Partially Positive

A

Atom with lower electronegativity , shared electrons are pulled toward other atom

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43
Q

Dipoles

A

Polar molecules with partially positive and partially negative ends

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44
Q

Hydrogen Bonds

A

Responsible for key property of water
- weak attractions between partially positive end of a one dipole and partially negative end of another dipole

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45
Q

Chemical Reaction

A

-Chemical bond is formed, broken, or rearranged
-Electrons are transferred between two or more atoms

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46
Q

Chemical Equation

A
  1. Reactants- starting ingredients, will undergo reaction
  2. Products- results of chemical reaction
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47
Q

Reversible Reactions

A

Proceed in either direction; denoted by two arrows in opposite direction

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48
Q

Irreversible Reactions

A

Proceed from left to right, denoted by single arrow

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49
Q

Energy

A

Capacity to do work or put matter into motion

  1. Potential
  2. Kinetic
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50
Q

Potential Energy

A

Stored, can be released later to do work

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51
Q

Kinetic Energy

A

Potential energy has been released or set in motion to perform work

-All atoms have kinetic energy (in constant motion)

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52
Q

3 Forms of Energy in Human Body

A
  1. Chemical
  2. Electrical
  3. Mechanical
53
Q

Chemical Energy

A

in bonds between atoms; drives nearly all chemical processes

54
Q

Electrical Energy

A

Generated by movement of charged particles or ions

55
Q

Mechanical Energy

A

energy directly transferred from one object to another

56
Q

Endergonic Reactions

A

require input of energy from another source; products contain more energy than reactants

57
Q

Exergonic Reactions

A

release excess energy; products have less energy than reactants

58
Q

Homeostasis

A

Breaking down molecules, converting energy in food to usable form and building new molecules
-Carried out by 3 types of chemical reactions:

  1. Catabolic
  2. Exchange
  3. Anabolic
59
Q

Catabolic Reaction

A

(Decomposition reactions)
- large substance is broken down into smaller substances
-Usually exergonic- chemical bonds broken

AB - A + B

60
Q

Exchange Reactions

A

One or more atoms from reactants are exchanged for one another

AB + CD - AD + BC

-example is oxidation reduction reaction

61
Q

Oxidation Reduction reaction

A

(redox) Electrons and energy are exchanged instead of atoms

-Usually exergonic reactions- release more energy

62
Q

Oxidized

A

Reactant that loses electrons

63
Q

Reduced

A

Reactants that gains electrons

64
Q

Anabolic Reaction

A

Small simple subunits united by chemical bonds, make large complex substances
- endergonic; fueled by chemical energy

A+B - AB

65
Q

Activation Energy (Ea)

A

Energy required for all chemical reactions

66
Q

Analogy

A

Activation energy must be supplied so that reactants reach transition states ( get to top of energy “hill”) to react and from products ( roll down hill )

67
Q

Increase reaction rate by reducing Ea

A
  • Concentration
  • Temp
  • Reactant properties
  • Presence or absence of catalyst
68
Q

Concentration

A

When it increases more reactant particles are present’ chance of successful collisions between reactants

69
Q

Temperature

A

Raising temp of reactants increases kinetic energy of atoms; leads to more forceful and effective collisions between reactants

70
Q

Properties

A

Size and Phase influence reaction rates:
-Smaller particles move faster
- Gaseous particles in gaseous phase have higher kinetic energy than solid or liquid

71
Q

Catalyst

A

Increases reaction rate by lowering Ea

72
Q

Enzymes

A

Biological catalysts; most are proteins
-Speed up reactions by lowering activation energy
–Highly specific for individual substrates
-Do not alter reactants or products
–Not permanently altered in reactions catalyze

73
Q

Substrates

A

Substance that can bind to enzymes active site

74
Q

Induced-fit Mechanism

A

Enzymes interaction with substrate

  1. Binding of substrate causes small shape change that brings substrate to transition state
  2. Reduces energy of activation; allows transition state to proceed to final product
75
Q

Biochemistry

A

chemistry of life

76
Q

Inorganic

A

compounds generally do not contain carbon bonded to hydrogen;

Ex: water, acid, bases and salts

77
Q

Organic

A

compounds do contain carbon bonded to hydrogen

Ex: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucelotides

78
Q

Water

A

H2O
Makes up 60-80% of mass of human body.

-Universal solvent
-High heat capacity – able to absorb heat without significantly changing temperature
*Carries heat with it when it evaporates
*Cushions and protects body structures because of relatively high density
*Acts as a lubricant between two adjacent surfaces (reduces friction)

79
Q

H2O

A

-Oxygen pole- partially negative
Hydrogen pole- partially positive

80
Q

Hydrophilic solutes

A

like dissolves like. can be dissolved in water
-polar covalent bonds and ionic compounds

81
Q

Hydrophobic solutes

A

do not dissolve in water (oils and fats)

-nonpolar covalent compounds

82
Q

Hydrogen ions (H+)

A

The study of acids and bases

83
Q

Hydrogen Ions

A

Positively charged ions

84
Q

Hydroxide Ions

A

Negatively charged ions

85
Q

Acid

A

Hydrogen ion or proton donor:
-number of hydrogen ions increases in water when acid is added
-Higher number of hydrogen ion

86
Q

Base (alkali)

A

Hydrogen ion acceptor
-binds free hydrogen ions in a solution
-number of hydrogen ions decreases in water when base is added
- lower number of hydrogen ion

87
Q

pH scale

A

Range from 0-14
- hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
-pH = Log[H+]
- pH = 7 , solution is neutral; number of hydrogen ions and base ions are equal
-pH less than 7 is acidic; hydrogen ions out number base ions
-pH greater than 7 is basic or alkaline base ions out number hydrogen ions

88
Q

Buffer

A

resists changes in pH; prevents large swings in pH when acid or base is added to solution
-major buffer is carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system
-Blood pH must remain within its narrow range
-most body fluids are slightly basic 7.35-7.45

89
Q

Salt

A

any metal cation and nonmetal anion held together by ionic bonds
-Can dissolve in water to form cations and anions called electrolytes; capable of conducting electrical current

90
Q

Monomers

A

single subunits combined to build larger structures (polymers)

91
Q

Monomers & Polymers

A

Each organic compound in the body (carbo, lipid, protein and nucleotides) are made of of monomers and polymers

92
Q

Dehydration synthesis

A

Links monomers together, makes molecule of water

93
Q

Hydrolysis

A

catabolic reaction; uses water to break polymers into smaller subunits

94
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
-Function primarily as fuel
types:
-Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

95
Q

Monosaccharides

A

-Monomers from which all carbohydrates are made of
▪3 to 7 carbons each
▪Glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, and deoxyribose are most abundant

96
Q

Disaccharides

A

Formed by the union of two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis

97
Q

Polysaccharides

A

Many monosaccharides joined to one another by dehydration synthesis reactions
*Polysaccharides covalently bound to proteins or lipids form glycoproteins and glycolipids; various functions in bod

98
Q

Glycogen

A

Storage polymer of glucose
-Mostly in skeletal muscle and liver cells

99
Q

Lipids

A

Group of non-polar hydrophobic molecules (does not dissolve in water) composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen

Ex: fats and oils

100
Q

Fatty acids

A

Lipid monomers
-4 to 20 carbon atoms; may have none, one, or more double bonds between carbons in hydrocarbon chain

101
Q

Saturated fatty acids

A

Fatty acids – solid at room temperature
-NO double bonds between carbon atoms
-carbons are “saturated” with maximum number of hydrogen atoms

102
Q

Monounsaturated fatty acids

A

Generally liquid at room temperature
-ONE double bond between two carbons in hydrocarbon chain

103
Q

polyunsaturated fatty acids

A

Liquid at room temperature
-two or more double bonds between carbons in hydrocarbon chain

104
Q

Omega 3 fats

A

Good
-Flaxseed oil and fish oil; cannot be made by humans; obtained in diet
–Polyunsaturated; positive effects on cardiovascular health

105
Q

Saturated fats

A

Bad
-Animal fats; also in palm and coconut oils
–Overconsumption associated with increased cardiac disease risk

106
Q

Trans fat

A

Ugly
-Produced by adding H atoms to unsaturated plant oils (“partially hydrogenated oils”)
–No safe consumption level; significantly increase risk of heart disease

107
Q

Triglyceride

A

Three fatty acids linked by dehydration synthesis to modified 3-carbon carbohydrate,

108
Q

Glycerol

A

storage polymer for fatty acids

109
Q

Phospholipids

A

Glycerol backbone
-two fatty acid “tails” and one phosphate “head”i n place of third fatty acid
-vital to structure of cell membranes

110
Q

Amphiphilic

A

Molecule with polar group (phosphate head) and non-polar group (2 fatty acid tails)

111
Q

Steroids

A

(Lipids) non polar
-share four ring hydrocarbon structure called steroid nucleus

112
Q

Cholesterol

A

(Lipid) steroid that forms bases for all other steroids

113
Q

Proteins (amino acids)

A

-Two basic types: 1.Fibrous
2. Globular
-Four levels of complex protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

amino and carboxylic acid

114
Q

Fibrous Protein

A

Long rope-like strands; mostly non-polar amino acids; add strength and durability to structures

115
Q

Globular Protein

A

Spherical or globe-like; mostly polar amino acids; function as enzymes, hormones, and other cell messenger

116
Q

Primary structure

A

Amino acid sequence of polypeptide chain

117
Q

Secondary Structure

A

One or more segments of primary structure folded in specific ways, held together by hydrogen bonds
–Alpha helix – coiled spring
–Beta-pleated sheet – Venetian blind

118
Q

Tertiary Structure

A

Three-dimensional shape of peptide chain (twists, folds, and coils, including secondary structure); stabilized by hydrogen bonding

119
Q

Quaternary Structure

A

linking together more than one polypeptide chain in specific arrangement; critical to FUNCTION of protein

120
Q

Protein denaturation

A

Destroying protein’s shape by heat, pH changes, or exposure to chemicals
*Disrupts hydrogen bonding and ionic interactions that stabilize STRUCTURE and FUNCTION

121
Q

Nucleotides

A

-Monomers of nucleic acids
Make up genetic material
Structure:
-Nitrogen base with hydrocarbon ring structure
–Five-carbon pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
–Phosphate group

122
Q

Purines

A

Type of nitrogen base
-Double ringed molecule: adenine and guanine

123
Q

Pyrimidines

A

Type of nitrogen base
-Single ringed molecule: cytosine, uracil, and thymine

124
Q

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A

Adenine attached to ribose and three phosphate groups
-main source of chemical energy in body
-Synthesized from ADP and phosphate group (Pi)
-ATP synthesis – highly endergonic reaction due to negative charges on phosphate groups
-Hydrolysis of bond is highly exergonic because ADP is more stable than ATP
-Not stored significantly by cells; entire supply exhausted in 60–90 seconds; cells must continually replenish ATP supply

125
Q

DNA

A

(Nucleotide)
-Extremely large molecule in nuclei of cells; composed of two long chains that twist around each other to form double helix
*Contains genes – recipe (code) for protein synthesis (process to make every protein)

126
Q

Structure of DNA

A

–Pentose sugar deoxyribose (lacks oxygen-containing group of ribose) forms backbone of strand; alternates with phosphate group
–Bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine
- DNA exhibits complementary base pairing; purine A always pairs with pyrimidine T; purine G always pairs with pyrimidine C
- A = T (where = denotes 2 hydrogen bonds) and C ≡ G (where ≡ denotes 3 hydrogen bonds

127
Q

RNA

A

single strand of nucleotides; moves between nucleus and cytosol; critical to making proteinsRNA contains pentose sugar riboseRNA contains uracil instead of thymine; still pairs with adenine (A = U)

128
Q

Transcription

A

RNA copies recipe for specific protein

129
Q

Translation

A

RNA exits nucleus to protein synthesis location
-directs making of protein from recipe

Human Anatomy & Physiology (4 decks)

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