Chapter 1 Introduction of Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards
Cells
Smallest unit of life that carry out functions of life.
- all organisms are composed of cells
Metabolism
Living organisms carry out chemical reactions
-Chemicals- substances with unique molecular composition
Anabolic
Build up of substances through metabolic process
Catabolic
Break down substances through metabolic process
Properties of Living Organisms
-Growth
-Excretion
-Responsiveness/ irritability
-Movement
-Reproduction
Growth
Building outweighs breaking down processes; two forms:
–Increase in size of individual cells
–Increase in number of cells
Excretion
elimination of potentially harmful waste products created by metabolic processes.
Ex: Urine, feces
Responsiveness/ irritability
Sensing and reacting to changes or stimuli in environment
Movement
–Entire organism
–Individual cells within organism
–Materials within or between cells of organism
Reproduction
–Individual cells reproduce during growth and to replace damaged or old cells
–Organism itself reproduces; yields similar offspring
Levels of Structure Organization an Body Systems (6)
-Chemical Level
-Cellular Level
-Tissue Level
-Organ Level
-Organ System Level
-Organism Level
Chemical Level
Smallest level; foundation for each successive level:
-ranges from tiny atoms to complex chemical structures (molecules)composed of thousands of atom
Cellular Level
Groups of many different types of molecules combined in specific ways to form cellular structures
Tissue Level
Two or more cell types cooperate to perform common function
–Two components: cells and surrounding extracellular matrix
Organ Level
Two or more tissue types combined to form organ
–Recognizable shape –Performs specialized task
Organ System Level
Two or more organs together carry out broad function
Ex: Digestive system
Organism Level
Organ systems function together to make up working human body, an organism
How many organ systems does the body have?
11 systems work together to ensure survival of organisms as a whole
-Integumentary System
-Skeletal System
-Muscular System
-Nervous System
-Endocrine System
-Cardiovascular System
-Lymphatic System
-Respiratory System
-Digestive System
-Urinary System
-Male / FemaleReproductive System
Integumentary System
The outer layer of the body: hair, skin, nails
-protects the body from external environment
-produces vitamin D
-retains water
-regulates body temperature
Skeletal System
organs: Bones and Joints
-Supports the body
-protects internal organs
-provides leverage for movement
-produces blood cells
-stores calcium salts
Muscular System
organ: skeletal muscles
-produce movement
-controls body openings
-generates heat
Nervous System
organ: brain, spinal cord, nerves
-regulates body function
-provides for sensation, movement, automatic functions, and higher mental functions via nerve impulses
Endocrine System
Organs: pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, testes, ovaries
-regulates body function of muscles, glands, and other tissues through the secretion of chemicals called hormones
Cardiovascular System
organ: blood vessels, heart
-pumps and delivers oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the tissues
-removes waste from the TISSUES
-transports cells, nutrients and other substances
Lymphatic Systen
organ: tonsils, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymphatic vessels
-returns excess tissue fluid to the cardiovascular system
-provides immunity (protection against disease)
Respiratory System
organ: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs
-delivers oxygen to the blood
-removes carbon dioxide from the body
-maintains the acid-base balance to the blood
Digestive System
organ: mouth, salivary gland, esophagus, liver, stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, large and small intestine
- digest food
-absorbs nutrients into the blood
-removes food waste
-maintains fluid, electrolytes abd acid-base balance
Urinary System
organ: kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
-removes metabolic waste from the blood
-maintains fluid, electrolyte and acid base balance
-stimulates blood cell production
Male Reproductive System
organ: prostate gland, ductus deferens, testis, penis
-produces and transport sperm
-secretes hormones
-sexual function
Female Reproductive System
organ: mammary glands, uterine tube, ovary, uterus, vagina
-produces and transport oocytes (eggs)
-site of fetal development, fetal nourishment, childbirth, and lactation
-secrets hormones
-sexual function
Systemic anatomy
Examines human body by individual organ systems (used in tetxbook)
Regional anatomy
Divides body into regions of study (such as head and neck
Surface anatomy
Studies surface markings of body
Gross anatomy
Examines structures that can be seen with unaided eye
Microscopic anatomy
studies structures that can only be seen with aid of microscope; include Histology and Cytology
Histology
Study of tissues
Cytology
Study of cells
Physiology
Subfields classified by organ or organ system being studied
ex; neurophysiology and cardiovascular physiology
Language of A&P
Word roots are combined with specific prefixes and suffixes to yield scientific terms
Anatomical Position
Frame of reference from which all body parts and regions are described:
–Body standing upright; feet are shoulder width apart, with upper limbs at sides of trunk and head and palms facing forward
–Body always referred to as if it were in anatomical position, even if in another position
Directional Terms
Help ensure accurate communication; describe relative location of body parts and markings
Anterior
(ventral) Front
-can refer to body as a whole or to body par
Posterior
(dorsal) Back
-can refer to body as a whole or to body par
Superior
(cranial) toward head
-used to refer to positions on head, neck, and trunk only
Inferior
(caudal) toward tail
-used to refer to positions on head, neck, and trunk only
Proximal
Closer to point of origin
Distal
More distant (further away) from same point of origin
Midline
Imaginary line that runs down middle of bo
Medial
Closer to midline
Lateral
Further away to midline
Superficial
Structures closer to surface of body
Deep
Further away from surface
Regional Terms
Body divided into two regions: axial and appendicular
-Each broad region can be divided into several smaller regions
Axial region
Head, neck and trunk
Appendicular
Upper and lower limbs or appendages
Planes of section
Dividing body or a body part for examination
Sagital Plane
Divides body or body part into right and left sections; two variations :
–Midsagittal plane
-Parasagittal plane
Midsagital plane
(median plane) - divides body or body part into equal left and right sections
Parasagital Plane
Divides body or body part into unequal right and left sections
Frontal Plane
divides body or body part into anterior and posterior sections
Transverse Plane
(horizontal plane) - divides body or body part into superior and inferior sections or proximal and distal sections for structures of appendicular region
Oblique Plane
Less standardized plane, taken at angle.
-useful for structures that are difficult to examine using only three primary planes of section
Cavity
Any fluid-filled space within body
*Axial region is divided into several cavities
*Protect internal organs and allow them to move and expand as necessary to perform functions
*Posterior and anterior cavities and their subdivision
Posterior Cavity
On posterior side of body . Divides in 2:
-Cranial cavity
-Vertebral cavity
Subdivisions are continuous, filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF); bathes and protects brain and spinal cord
Thoracic Cavity
Divided into:
1. Pleural cavities
2. Mediastinum
3. Pericardial cavity
Anterior Cavity
Separated into two divisions by diaphragm
-Thoracic cavity; superior to diaphragm
-Abdominopelvic cavity; inferior to diaphragm
Pleural Cavities
Each surround either left or right lung
Mediastinum
Between pleural cavities; houses heart, great vessels, trachea (windpipe), and esophagus; not within serous membrane
Pericardial Cavity
Within mediastinum; within serous membrane that surrounds heart
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Subdivided into superior abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity
Contains organs from several systems (digestive, lymphatic, reproductive, and urinary)
Peritoneal cavity – abdominal subcavity found within serous membrane
Quadrants of Abdominopelvic cavity
Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
Right lower quadrant (RLQ)
Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
Left lower quadrant (LLQ)
Segments of Abdominopelvic cavity
Divided into 9 segments, using two parasagittal and two transverse imaginary lines.
Right & Left Hypochondriac regions
Below cartilage of ribs
Epigastric region
Middle superior region above stomach and between right and left hypochondriac region
Right & left Lumbar regions
Middle segments at same level as lumbar vertebrae
Umbilical region
between lumbar regions, over umbilicus
Right & Left iliac / inguinal regions
Most inferior segments
Hypogastric region
Between iliac regions, below stomach
Serous Membrane
Thin sheets of tissue; form cavities in ventral cavity; surround heart, lungs, and many abdominal organs
–Single, continuous layer of tissue; folds over itself to create a double-layered structure:
Visceral layer
Parietal layer
Visceral Layer
In contact with underlying organ
Parietal Layer
Outermost layer attached to surrounding structures
Serous Fluid
Within cavity between two membrane layers (visceral & parietal) ; extremely thin layer of fluid
–Watery, slippery lubricant
–Fills space between membrane layers
–Produced by cells of membrane
–Prevents friction from movement of organs
Serous Body Cavities
The body has 3 :
- Pleural membranes
- Pericardial membranes
- Peritoneal membranes
Pleural Membranes
Consist of outer parietal pleura (follow contours of thoracic wall) and inner visceral pleura (runs along surface of lungs)
Pleural cavities - thin space enclosed by pleural membrane
Pericardial Membranes
Consist of outer parietal pericardium (separates heart from mediastinum) and inner visceral pericardium (lies directly on heart muscle)
Pericardial cavity - space created by pericardial membrane
Peritoneal Membranes
Surrounds some of abdominal organs
Consist of outer parietal peritoneum and inner visceral peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity - space between visceral and parietal layers
Doesn’t cover every organ; kidneys lie outside of and behind parietal peritoneum; thus retroperitoneal organs
Homeostasis
Maintenance of internal environment
Homeostatic imbalances
Disturbances in homeostasis can lead to disease or death if uncorrected
-to prevent imbalance, most variables are controlled (regulated); maintained within a narrow range, close to a normal value
Core Principles of Homeostasis
*Feedback loops
*Relationship between structure and function
*Gradients
*Cell-to-cell communication
Feedback Loop core principle
Vital to maintenance of homeostasis:
- Negative feedback loop
- Positive feedback loop
Negative feedback loop
Oppose initial change in regulated variable; reduce output
–Detection of change in regulated variable leads to series of events to return variable to normal value
–Each regulated variable has setpoint (normal value)
Normal range
set point is within range of values
Receptor
(aka sensor) detects stimulus
-Is a specialized cellular structure
Stimulus
when regulated variable is outside of normal range
Control center
-Stimulus sent to control center
-Determine when variable is outside of set point
-signal other cells or organs, that cause physiological responses that return variable to normal homeostatic range
Effectors
other cell or organ that are signaled by the control center of stimulus to help return to normal (response)
Positive Feedback Loop
Less common than Negative feedback loop
-Effector activity increases and reinforces initial stimulus; shuts off when conditions return to normal range
-found within negative feedback loop to produce quicker response (ex: formation of blood clot, childbirth)
Structure & Function core principle
–The structure of any part of the body determines its function
–States simply that form follows function
Most basic principle
Gradient core principle
Present any time more of something exists in one area than another, where two areas are connected.
3 common gradients:
-Temperature
-Concentration
-Pressure
Temperature gradient
Temperature difference between two connected regions
Concentration gradient
Concentration difference between two connected regions
Pressure gradient
Pressure difference between two connected regions
Cell-Cell Communication core principle
Required to coordinate body functions
–Cells in body must work in coordinated fashion to maintain homeostasis of entire organism
(via chemical messengers or electrical signals)
– One cell triggers another to cause a response
