CHAPTER 2 - METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY Flashcards
Empiricism
Belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation
Scientific method
Procedure for using empirical evidence to establish facts
Theory
Explanation of a natural phenomena (theories are NOT proven)
Hypothesis
Predictions made by a theory that can be tested (eg. One’s memory will be better while studying with music compared to studying with no music
Empirical method
Set of rules and techniques for observation
Reasons of empirical challenges (3)
- Complexity: The human brain is very complicated
- Variability: No two individuals ever do, say, think or feel exactly the same thing under the sae circumstances
- Reactivity: When people know they are being studied, they do not always behave the same way
How do we use science (3)
- Describe: Descriptive research (case studies, survey, natural observations)
- Predict: Correlational research
- Explain: Experimental research
Observation
Using one’s senses to learn about the properties of an event or an object
Measure
Device that can detect the condition to which an operational definition refers
Operational definition
Description of a property in concrete, measurable term
3 requirements of a good operational definition:
- Construct validity: Extent to which the thing being measured adequately characterizes the property
- Reliability: Tendency for a measure to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing
- Power: Ability of a measure to detect difference or changes in the magnitude of a property
Demand characteristics
When participants from an interpretation of the experiment’s purpose subconsciously change their behavior to fit an interpretation
Naturalistic observation
Technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in natural environments
3 reasons why naturalistic observation is not always practical:
- Some events are not naturally occurring
- Some events can only be observed through direct interaction
- Observer bias
Observer bias
Expectations that can influence observations and influence perceptions of reality
Double blind
Observations where the purpose of experiment is hidden from both observer and the person being observed. It is good because then participants/people cannot behave the way they think they should because they do not know how they should behave
Population
Complete collection of people (rarely measured)
Sample
Partial collection of people drawn from a population
2 techniques for analyzing data:
- Graphic representation
- Descriptive statistics
Frequency distribution
Graphic representation showing the number of times in which the measurement of a property takes on each of its possible values
Normal distributions
Measurements are concentrated around the middle
Skewed distributions
Non-normal (negative/positive skew)
Descriptive statistics
Brief summary statements about a frequency distribution
Central tendency
Center or midpoint Mode
Mode
Value of the most frequently observed measurement
Mean:
Average value of all measurements
Median
Middle value
Variability
The extent that measurements differ
Range
Value of the largest measurement in a frequency distribution minus the value of the smallest measurement
Standard deviation
Statistic that describes the average difference between scores and the mean of that distribution
Variables
Property whose values can vary across individuals or over time
Correlation
Mutual relationship or connection between two or more things
Correlation coefficient
Measure of the direction and strength of correlation ( r )
R = +1
Perfect positive correlation (x goes up, y goes up)
R = -1
Perfect negative correlation (x goes up, y goes down)
R = 0
No correlation
Third-variable problems
When observed correlation between two variables can actually be explained by a third variable that hasn’t been accounted for
Ultimate goal of scientific research
Discovery of casual relationships between properties and to study patterns of variations in a series of measurements
Experimentation
Technique for establishing the casual relationship between variables
Independent variable
Variable that is manipulated in an experiment
Dependant variable
Variable that is measured in a study
Random assignment
Procedure that uses a random event to assign people to the experimental or control group
Experimental group
Group of people who are treated in a particular way in an experiment
Control group
Group of people who are not treated in a particular way that the experimental group is treated in an experiment
Self selection
Problem that occurs when anything about a person determines whether he/she will be included in the experimental or control group
Statistical significance
We can feel confident in findings when the probability the result is due to chance is less than 5% (p<0.05)
Internal validity
Attribute of an experiment that allows it to establish casual relationships. Good internal validity = everything inside the experiment is working as it must to draw conclusions
External validity
Property of an experiment in which the variables have been operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way. Good external validity = results can be generalized to a broader group of people (population)
Random sampling
Choosing participants ensuring every member of population has an equal chance of being selected (difficult to do and most studies uses nonrandom sampling)
Type I error
When researchers conclude that there is a casual relationship between two variables when there is not
Type II error
When researchers conclude that there is not a casual relationship between two variables when there is
Reasons why nonrandom sampling is not a flaw (2):
- Sometimes the representativeness of a sample doesn’t matter
- Sometimes the representativeness of a sample is a reasonable starting assumption
Case method
Method of gathering scientific knowledge by studying a single individual (n=1)
Why are replication studies important
When the same results occur multiple times, we are more confident of the findings)
Critical thinking
The objective analysis of situations or issues
Why do people have so much trouble thinking critically (4)
- We see what we expect and want
- We hold different kinds of evidence to different standards
- Beliefs and desires shape which evidence to consider
- We don’t consider what we don’t see
Sir francis bacon
Published a book called Novum Organum where he described a new method for discovering facts about natural world (Baconian method = scientific method)
Steps in critical thinking (5)
- Identifying question or problem
- Gathering information
- Evaluating evidence
- Considering alternative explanations
- Choosing a solution for evidence
What % of participants in psychology have come from a single country (US)
70%
TCPS - Tri Council Policy Statement core principles of human participants (3)
- Research should show respect for persons and their right to make decisions for and about themselves without influence
- Research should show concern for welfare, which means to attempt to maximize benefits and reduce risks of participant
- Research should be just, which means that it should distribute benefits and risks equally to participants without prejudice towards particular individuals or groups
TCPS core principles of human participants
Respect for persons, research should be beneficent, research should be just
American Psychological Association’s code of ethics for research and publication (7)
- Informed consent
- Freedom from coercion
- Protection from harm
- Risk benefit analysis
- Deception
- Debriefing
- Confidentiality
Debriefing
A verbal description of the true nature and purpose of study
Canadian Council on Animal Care - Respecting animals (3)
- Replacement: Research must prove that there is no alternative to using animals in research
- Reduction: Must use the fewest numbers of animals possible
- Refinement: Discomfort and pain must be minimized
