Chapter 2: Biology and Psychology Flashcards
a specialized cell of the nervous system that receives and transmits messages
Neuron
cells that remove dead neurons and waste products from the nervous system, nourish and insulate neurons, form myelin, and play a role in neural transmission of messages
Glial Cells
root like structures; attached to the cell body of a neuron, that receive impulses, or incoming messages, from other neurons.
Dendrites
a long, thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from bulb-shaped structures called axon terminals or terminal buttons.
Axon
a fatty substance that encases and insulates axons, facilitating transmission of neural impulses
Myelin
transmits messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain.
Afferent Neurons or Sensory Neurons
transmits messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands.
Efferent Neurons or Motor Neurons
the electrochemical discharge of a nerve cell or neuron.
Neural Impulses
the electrochemical discharge of a nerve cell or neuron.
Neural Impulses
to ready a neuron for firing by creating an internal negative charge in relation to the body fluid outside the cell membrane.
Polarize
the electrical potential across the neural membrane when it is not responding to other neurons
Resting Potential
to reduce the resting potential of a cell membrane from about 70 millivolts toward zero
Depolarized
the electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron.
Action potential
a location on a dendrite of a receiving neuron tailored to receive a neurotransmitter
Receptor Site
a neurotransmitter that controls muscle contractions.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
a neurotransmitter that affects the ability to perceive pleasure, voluntary movement, and learning and memory; it is involved in Parkinson’s disease and appears to play a role in schizophrenia.
Dopamine
a neurotransmitter whose action is similar to that of the hormone epinephrine and that may play a role in depression.
Norepinephrine
a neurotransmitter involved in emotional arousal and sleep; deficiencies of serotonin have been linked to eating disorders, alcoholism, depression, aggression, and insomnia
Serotonin
an inhibitory neurotransmitter that apparently helps calm anxiety.
Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
inhibitory neurotransmitters that occur naturally in the brain and in the bloodstream and are similar to the narcotic morphine in their functions and effects
Endorphins
a bundle of axons from
many neurons
Nerves
the brain and spinal cord
Central Nervous System
the part of the nervous system consisting of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
Peripheral Nervous System
the division of the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous system with sensory receptors, skeletal muscles, and the surface of the body
Somatic Nervous System
the division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates glands and activities such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and dilation of the pupils.
Autonomic Nervous System ( ANS )
Two Divisions of Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Division and Parasympathetic Division
the branch of the ANS that is most active during emotional responses, such as fear and anxiety, that spend the body’s reserves of energy
Sympathetic Division
the branch of the ANS that is most active during processes (such as digestion) that restore the body’s reserves of energy
Parasympathetic Division
“super information highway”
a column of nerves within the spine that transmits messages from sensory receptors to the brain and from the brain to muscles and glands throughout the body
Spinal Cord
a simple, unlearned response to a stimulus that may involve only two neurons
Spinal Reflex
the grayish neurons and neural segments that are involved in spinal reflexes
Gray Matter
axon bundles that carry messages to and from the brain
White Matter
a method of detecting brain waves by means of measuring the current between electrodes placed on the scalp
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
a method of brain imaging that passes a narrow X-ray beam through the head and measures the structures that reflect the beams from various angles, enabling a computer to generate a three-dimensional image
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT scan)
a method of brain imaging that injects a radioactive tracer into the bloodstream and assesses activity of parts of the brain according to the amount of glucose they metabolize
Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan)
an imaging method that places a person in a magnetic field and uses radio waves to cause the brain to emit signals that reveal shifts in the flow of blood, which, when the brain is being scanned, indicate brain activity
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
a form of MRI that enables researchers to observe the brain “while it works” by taking repeated scans
Functional MRI (fMRI)
an area near the center of the brain involved in the relay of sensory information to the cortex and in the functions of sleep and attention
Thalamus
a bundle of nuclei below the thalamus involved in body temperature, motivation, and emotion
Hypothalamus
an oblong area of the hindbrain involved in regulation of heartbeat, blood pressure, movement, and respiration
Medulla
a structure of the hindbrain involved in respiration, attention, and sleep and arousal; Pons is the Latin word for “bridge”
Pons
a part of the hindbrain involved in muscle coordination and balance
Cerebellum
a part of the brain involved in attention, sleep, and arousal
Reticular Formation
a group of structures (Hippocampus, amygdala, and parts of hypothalamus) involved in memory, motivation, and emotion that forms a fringe along the inner edge of the cerebrum
Limbic System
a part of the limbic system that apparently facilitates stereotypical aggressive responses
Amygdala
The outer coating of the cerebrum
The Cerebral Cortex
- is responsible for thinking and language.
- the large mass of the forebrain, which consists of two hemispheres: Left and Right;
- The hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum (Latin for “hard body”),
Cerebrum
The 4 Lobes
Prefrontal Lobe, Frontal Lobe, Parietal Lobe, Parietal Lobe, Temporal Lobe, and Occipital Lobe
- the section of cortex in which sensory stimulation is projected.
- It lies just behind the central fissure in the parietal lobe
Somatosensory Cortex
the section of cortex that lies in the frontal lobe, just across the central fissure from the sensory cortex; neural impulses in the motor cortex are linked to muscular responses throughout the body.
Motor Cortex
- Breadth and depth of human learning, thought, memory, and language.
- Core of your working memory
Association Areas
Located in the frontal lobe, near the motor cortex which controls the muscles of the throat, tongue, and other parts of the face.
Processes the information and relays it to the motor cortex
Broca’s Area
a language disorder characterized by slow, laborious speech
Broca’s aphasia
Located in the temporal lobe near the auditory cortex, and responds to sounds.
Wernicke’s Area
a language disorder characterized by difficulty comprehending the meaning of spoken language
Wernicke’s aphasia
The body’s system of ductless glands that secrete hormones and release it directly in the bloodstream.
The Endocrine System
A substance secreted by the endocrine gland that regulates body functions (growth, metabolism, behavior)
Hormones
a system where if the hormone that was secreted was enough, the gland is signaled to stop.
Negative Feedback Loop
- Located between the visual and Wernicke’s area;
- Translates visual information into auditory information and sends it to the Wernicke’s area
Angular gyrus
More involved in logical analysis, problem solving, math, language
Left-Brained
Colors, aesthetic, emotional responses, etc.
Right-Brained
temporary disturbances of brain functions that involve sudden neural discharges
Epilepsy
- “Master Gland”
- Controls the function of other glands in the endocrine system
Pituitary Gland
Production of urine and paternal behavior
Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Syndrome)
Stimulates labor
Oxytocin
Secretes hormones to stimulates the pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
Secretes melatonin to regulate sleep-wake cycle and affect on-set puberty
Pineal Gland
- Produces hormones that help the body respond to stress;
- Regulated by ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone).
- Secretes corticosteroids (heartbeat, muscle development)
- Epinephrine/Adrenaline intensifies emotions
- Norepinephrine/Noradrenaline
Adrenal Gland
Produce hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
Thyroid Gland
Produces hormones that regulates calcium levels in the blood
Parathyroid Gland
acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain of the adrenal gland.
Norepinephrine/Noradrenalin
intensifies emotions (adrenal gland)
Epinephrine/Adrenaline
Produces hormones to regulate blood sugar: insulin and glucagon.
Pancreas
Regulates menstrual cycle and reproduction: estrogen and progesterone
Ovaries
Regulates testosterone and reproduction.
Testes
the branch of psychology that studies the ways in which adaptation and natural selection are connected with mental processes and behavior
Evolutionary Psychology
the concept that holds that adaptive genetic variations among members of a species enable individuals with those variations to survive and reproduce
Natural Selection
a sudden variation in an inheritable characteristic, as distinguished from a variation that results from generations of gradual selection
Mutation
stereotyped pattern of behavior that is triggered by a particular stimulus and nearly identical among members of a species, even when they are reared in isolation
Instinct
the transmission of traits from parent to offspring by means of genes
Hereditary
the area of biology that focuses on heredity
Hereditary
the area of biology that focuses on heredity
Genetics
bridges the sciences of psychology and biology. It is concerned with the genetic transmission of traits that give rise to patterns of behavior.
Behavioral Genetics
a basic unit of heredity, which is found at a specific point on a chromosome
Gene
- made up of strings of genes.
- Chromosomes are large complex molecules of DNA (short for deoxyribonucleic acid), which has several chemical components.
Chromosome
that forms the basic material of chromosomes; it takes the form of a double helix and contains the genetic code.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
influenced by combinations of genes.
Polygenic
your full genetic potential, as determined by the sequencing of the chemicals in your DNA.
Genotype
one’s actual development and appearance, as based on one’s genotype and environmental influences
Phenotype
the inborn, innate character of an organism
Nature
the sum total of the environmental factors that affect an organism from conception onward
Nurture
the 23rd pair of chromosomes, whose genetic material determines the sex of the individual
Sex Chromosomes
