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chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

quality scientific research meets the following criteria:

A
  1. it is based on measurements that are objective, valid and reliable
  2. it can be generalized
  3. it uses techniques that reduce bias
  4. it is made public
  5. it can be replicated
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2
Q

objective measurements

A

the measure of behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers

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3
Q

variable (objectivity)

A

the object, concept, or event being measured (independent and dependent)

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4
Q

operational definitions

A

statements that describe the procedures (or operations) and specific measures that are used to record observations (what you’re doing vs. what you get)

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5
Q

validity

A

refers to the degree to which an instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure

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6
Q

reliability

A

when it provides consistent and stable answers scores multiple observations and points in time

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7
Q

test-retest reliability examines

A

whether scores on a given measure of behaviour are consistent across text sessions

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8
Q

generalizability

A

refers to the degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals or events

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9
Q

population

A

the group that researchers want to generalize about

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10
Q

sample

A

a select group of population members

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11
Q

random sample

A

a sampling technique in which every individual of a population has an equal chance of being included

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12
Q

convenience samples

A

samples of individuals who are the most readily available

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13
Q

ecological validity

A

meaning that the results of a laboratory study can be applied to or repeated in the natural environment

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14
Q

researcher bias

A

distortion of evidence because of the personal motives and expectations of the viewer

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15
Q

subject bias

A

changes in behaviour that result from knowledge of being observed for evaluated

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16
Q

hawthorne effect

A

a behaviour change that occurs as a result of being observed

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17
Q

social desirability

A

participants may respond in ways that increase the chances that they will be viewed favourably by the experimenter and/or other participants

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18
Q

placebo effect

A

a measurable and experienced improvement in health or behaviour that cannot be attributable to a medication or treatment
- participants expectations or beliefs about what’s supposed to happen may bring about behavioural change

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19
Q

demand characteristics

A

subtly communicates cues given off by the experimenter or the experimental context that provide information about how participants are expected to behave, producing the disease reaction

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20
Q

anonymity

A

means that each individuals responses are recorded without any name or other personal information that could link a particular individual to specific results

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21
Q

confidentiality

A

means that the results will he seem only by the researcher

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22
Q

reducing subject bias

A
  • provide confidentiality and anonymity to gather honest responses from research participants
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23
Q

single-blind study

A

the participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or else do not know which type of treatment they are receiving

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24
Q

double-blind study

A

a study in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the exact treatment for any individual

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25
Q

peer review

A

a process in which papers submitted for publication in scholarly journals are read and critiques by experts in the specific field of study

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26
Q

peer review involves two main tasks

A
  • an editor receives the manuscript from the researcher and determines whether it is appropriate subject matter for the journal
  • the editor sends copies of the manuscript to a select group of peer reviewers and critique the methods and results of the research and make recommendations to the editor regarding the merits of the research
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27
Q

replication

A

the process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time

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28
Q

publication bias

A

successful and novel results are published and studies that showed no effects are not

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29
Q

why replication is so important

A

it helps us determine if these published studies are simply statistical flukes

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30
Q

a characteristic of poor research, anecdotal evidence

A

an individuals story or testimony about an observation or event that is used to make a claim as evidence

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31
Q

questionable evidence, appeal to authority

A

the belief in an “experts” claim even when no supporting data or scientific evidence is present

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32
Q

appeal to common sense

A

a claim that appears to be sound, but lacks supporting scientific evidence

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33
Q

research design

A

a set of methods that allows a hypothesis to be tested

34
Q

descriptive research answers

A

the question of “what” a phenomenon is

35
Q

qualitative research

A

involves examining an issue or behaviour without performing numerical measurements of the variables

36
Q

critical thinking examine, evaluate and entertains

A

examines assumptions
evaluated evidence
entertains alternative explanations

37
Q

hindsight bias

A

tendency to believe, after learning outcome, that one could foresee it
(“i knew it all along” phenomenon)

38
Q

the process of research: the scientific method

A

observe (initial observation or question)
predict (form a hypothesis)
test (design the study)
interpret (analyze the data and draw conclusions
communicate (report the findings, consider open questions, act on open questions)

39
Q

standardization

A

using uniform and consistent procedures in all phases of data collection

40
Q

representative sample

A

a subset that closely matches the characteristics of the population being studied

41
Q

quantitative research

A

involves the examining an issue or behaviour by using numerical measurements and/or statistics

42
Q

case study

A

an in-depth report about the details of a specific case

43
Q

case study occurs when

A

an individual undergoes a rare event or exhibits highly unusual characteristics

44
Q

information from case studies

A

are not considered definitive but are useful in generating new research (i.e. new hypotheses)

45
Q

scientists performing a case study describe

A

an individuals history and behaviour in great deal

- an intensive observation of a particular individual

46
Q

naturalistic observations

A

unobtrusively observe and record behaviour as it occurs in the subjects natural environment

47
Q

naturalistic observations can occur

A

a where that behaviour occurs

48
Q

self-reporting

A

a method in which responses are provided directly by the people who are being studied, typically through face-to-face interviews, phone surveys, paper and pencil tests, and web-based questionnaires

49
Q

self reporting methods allow

A

researchers to assess attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and abilities

50
Q

how do researchers figure out if their questions are valid?

A

researchers perform a large amount of pretending in order to calculate norms, or average patterns of data

51
Q

correlational research

A

involves measuring the degree of association between two or more variables

52
Q

correlational methods

A

method is used to determine the extent to which two variables can’t be manipulated

53
Q

if correlations are posistive

A

it means that the two variables change values in the same direction

54
Q

positive correlation range

A

+0.1 to +1.0

55
Q

if correlations are negative

A

it means that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable tends to decrease

56
Q

negative correlation range

A

-0.1 to -1.0

57
Q

a correlation coefficient of zero means

A

that there is no relationship between the two variables

58
Q

third variable problem

A

the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable is actually responsible for a well established correlation between two variables

59
Q

independent variable

A

a factor that is manipulated by the researcher. the causal part of the relationship

60
Q

dependent variable

A

a factor that the experimenter measures to determine the impact of the independent variable. the effective part of the relationship

61
Q

illusory correlations

A

relationships that really exist only in the mind, rather than in reality

62
Q

random assignment

A

a technique for dividing samples into two or more groups in which participants are equally likely to be placed in any condition of the experiment

63
Q

experimental methods

A

procedures used to make strong causal claims about the impact of the IV (manipulated) on the DV (measured)

64
Q

confounding variable

A

a variable outside of the researchers control that might affect or provide an alternative explanation for the results

65
Q

between subject design

A

an experimental design in which we compare the performance of participants who are in different groups

66
Q

experimental group

A

the group in the experiment that receives a treatment or the stimuli targeting a specific behaviour

67
Q

control group

A

the group that does not receive the treatment or stimuli targeting a specific behaviour; this group therefore serves as a baseline to which the experimental group is compared

68
Q

a between subjects design

A

allows researchers to examine differences between groups

69
Q

within subjects design

A

an experimental design in which the same participants respond to all types of stimuli or experience all experimental conditions

70
Q

quasi experimental research

A

a research technique in which the two or more groups that are compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment

71
Q

case studies strengths and limitations

A

yields detailed information, often of rare conditions or observations.
focus on a single subject limits generalizability

72
Q

naturalistic observations strengths and limitations

A

allows for detailed descriptions of subjects in environments where behaviour normally occurs.
poor control over possible influential variables

73
Q

survey/questionnaires strengths and limitations

A

quick and often convenient way of gathering large quantities of self report data.
poor control; participants may not answer honestly

74
Q

correlational study

A

shows strength of relationships between variables.

does not allow researcher to determine cause and effect relationships

75
Q

experiment strengths and limitations

A

tests for cause and effect relationships; offers good control over influential variables.
risk of being artificial with limited generalization to real world situations

76
Q

research ethics board

A

a committee of researchers and officials at an institution charged with the protection of research participants

77
Q

perceptual constancy

A

the ability to perceive objects as having constant shape, size, and colour despite changes in perspective

78
Q

shape constancy

A

we judge the angle of the object relative to our position

79
Q

size constancy

A

is based on judgments of how close an object is relative to ones position as well as to the positions of other objects

80
Q

colour constancy

A

allows us to recognize an objects colour under varying levels of illumination

Intro Psychology (6 decks)

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