chapter 2 Flashcards
quality scientific research meets the following criteria:
- it is based on measurements that are objective, valid and reliable
- it can be generalized
- it uses techniques that reduce bias
- it is made public
- it can be replicated
objective measurements
the measure of behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers
variable (objectivity)
the object, concept, or event being measured (independent and dependent)
operational definitions
statements that describe the procedures (or operations) and specific measures that are used to record observations (what you’re doing vs. what you get)
validity
refers to the degree to which an instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure
reliability
when it provides consistent and stable answers scores multiple observations and points in time
test-retest reliability examines
whether scores on a given measure of behaviour are consistent across text sessions
generalizability
refers to the degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals or events
population
the group that researchers want to generalize about
sample
a select group of population members
random sample
a sampling technique in which every individual of a population has an equal chance of being included
convenience samples
samples of individuals who are the most readily available
ecological validity
meaning that the results of a laboratory study can be applied to or repeated in the natural environment
researcher bias
distortion of evidence because of the personal motives and expectations of the viewer
subject bias
changes in behaviour that result from knowledge of being observed for evaluated
hawthorne effect
a behaviour change that occurs as a result of being observed
social desirability
participants may respond in ways that increase the chances that they will be viewed favourably by the experimenter and/or other participants
placebo effect
a measurable and experienced improvement in health or behaviour that cannot be attributable to a medication or treatment
- participants expectations or beliefs about what’s supposed to happen may bring about behavioural change
demand characteristics
subtly communicates cues given off by the experimenter or the experimental context that provide information about how participants are expected to behave, producing the disease reaction
anonymity
means that each individuals responses are recorded without any name or other personal information that could link a particular individual to specific results
confidentiality
means that the results will he seem only by the researcher
reducing subject bias
- provide confidentiality and anonymity to gather honest responses from research participants
single-blind study
the participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or else do not know which type of treatment they are receiving
double-blind study
a study in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the exact treatment for any individual
peer review
a process in which papers submitted for publication in scholarly journals are read and critiques by experts in the specific field of study
peer review involves two main tasks
- an editor receives the manuscript from the researcher and determines whether it is appropriate subject matter for the journal
- the editor sends copies of the manuscript to a select group of peer reviewers and critique the methods and results of the research and make recommendations to the editor regarding the merits of the research
replication
the process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time
publication bias
successful and novel results are published and studies that showed no effects are not
why replication is so important
it helps us determine if these published studies are simply statistical flukes
a characteristic of poor research, anecdotal evidence
an individuals story or testimony about an observation or event that is used to make a claim as evidence
questionable evidence, appeal to authority
the belief in an “experts” claim even when no supporting data or scientific evidence is present
appeal to common sense
a claim that appears to be sound, but lacks supporting scientific evidence
research design
a set of methods that allows a hypothesis to be tested
descriptive research answers
the question of “what” a phenomenon is
qualitative research
involves examining an issue or behaviour without performing numerical measurements of the variables
critical thinking examine, evaluate and entertains
examines assumptions
evaluated evidence
entertains alternative explanations
hindsight bias
tendency to believe, after learning outcome, that one could foresee it
(“i knew it all along” phenomenon)
the process of research: the scientific method
observe (initial observation or question)
predict (form a hypothesis)
test (design the study)
interpret (analyze the data and draw conclusions
communicate (report the findings, consider open questions, act on open questions)
standardization
using uniform and consistent procedures in all phases of data collection
representative sample
a subset that closely matches the characteristics of the population being studied
quantitative research
involves the examining an issue or behaviour by using numerical measurements and/or statistics
case study
an in-depth report about the details of a specific case
case study occurs when
an individual undergoes a rare event or exhibits highly unusual characteristics
information from case studies
are not considered definitive but are useful in generating new research (i.e. new hypotheses)
scientists performing a case study describe
an individuals history and behaviour in great deal
- an intensive observation of a particular individual
naturalistic observations
unobtrusively observe and record behaviour as it occurs in the subjects natural environment
naturalistic observations can occur
a where that behaviour occurs
self-reporting
a method in which responses are provided directly by the people who are being studied, typically through face-to-face interviews, phone surveys, paper and pencil tests, and web-based questionnaires
self reporting methods allow
researchers to assess attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and abilities
how do researchers figure out if their questions are valid?
researchers perform a large amount of pretending in order to calculate norms, or average patterns of data
correlational research
involves measuring the degree of association between two or more variables
correlational methods
method is used to determine the extent to which two variables can’t be manipulated
if correlations are posistive
it means that the two variables change values in the same direction
positive correlation range
+0.1 to +1.0
if correlations are negative
it means that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable tends to decrease
negative correlation range
-0.1 to -1.0
a correlation coefficient of zero means
that there is no relationship between the two variables
third variable problem
the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable is actually responsible for a well established correlation between two variables
independent variable
a factor that is manipulated by the researcher. the causal part of the relationship
dependent variable
a factor that the experimenter measures to determine the impact of the independent variable. the effective part of the relationship
illusory correlations
relationships that really exist only in the mind, rather than in reality
random assignment
a technique for dividing samples into two or more groups in which participants are equally likely to be placed in any condition of the experiment
experimental methods
procedures used to make strong causal claims about the impact of the IV (manipulated) on the DV (measured)
confounding variable
a variable outside of the researchers control that might affect or provide an alternative explanation for the results
between subject design
an experimental design in which we compare the performance of participants who are in different groups
experimental group
the group in the experiment that receives a treatment or the stimuli targeting a specific behaviour
control group
the group that does not receive the treatment or stimuli targeting a specific behaviour; this group therefore serves as a baseline to which the experimental group is compared
a between subjects design
allows researchers to examine differences between groups
within subjects design
an experimental design in which the same participants respond to all types of stimuli or experience all experimental conditions
quasi experimental research
a research technique in which the two or more groups that are compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment
case studies strengths and limitations
yields detailed information, often of rare conditions or observations.
focus on a single subject limits generalizability
naturalistic observations strengths and limitations
allows for detailed descriptions of subjects in environments where behaviour normally occurs.
poor control over possible influential variables
survey/questionnaires strengths and limitations
quick and often convenient way of gathering large quantities of self report data.
poor control; participants may not answer honestly
correlational study
shows strength of relationships between variables.
does not allow researcher to determine cause and effect relationships
experiment strengths and limitations
tests for cause and effect relationships; offers good control over influential variables.
risk of being artificial with limited generalization to real world situations
research ethics board
a committee of researchers and officials at an institution charged with the protection of research participants
perceptual constancy
the ability to perceive objects as having constant shape, size, and colour despite changes in perspective
shape constancy
we judge the angle of the object relative to our position
size constancy
is based on judgments of how close an object is relative to ones position as well as to the positions of other objects
colour constancy
allows us to recognize an objects colour under varying levels of illumination
