Chapter 2 Flashcards
what are the steps of the scientific method
1) observing something
2) making a hypothesis and predictions
3) testing through empirical research (collecting and analyzing data)
4) making conclusions
5) evaluating your theory
what is a theory, variable, and hypothesis
theory: an idea that tries to explain a previous observation and any future observation
variable: anything that can change
hypothesis: an educated guess/tentative answer to a well framed question that comes logically from a theory, and can be tested
what is an operational definition
an objective description of how a variable will be measured and observed in a study (i.e. using saliva samples to measure the amounts of cortisol (stress hormone))
what indicates a research finding is reliable
- it can be repeated, replicated, using different method by different people and they still get the same result
DIRECT REPLICATION: doing the study precisely as it was OG done
CONCEPTUAL REPLICATION: doing the study with diff methods or diff types of samples
what is meta-analysis
- a method that allows researchers to combine the results of several different studies on a similar topic so they get a stronger result
- it also allows them to see if its consistent (i.e. a study examining the correlation btwn happiness and work success, looked at 43 studies to get a result)
- more powerful than any single study result because they combine
what are the 3 types of research
descriptive
correlational
experimental
- experiment=carefully regulated procedure where the researcher manipulates 1+ variables to influence another variable, and hold other variables constant
- NEED THIS TO DEMONSTRATE CAUSATION
what does descriptive research entail
- descriptive research is describing the basic dimensions of some variable/phenomenon, and defining what is is, how often it occurs
- by itself, it cant prove what causes a phenomenon, includes observation, surveys interviews, case studies, etc.
what makes observations effective
they have to be systematic, you must know who you’re observing, when/where you’re observing, how you will make the observation, and in what form you will document
what are the benefits of surveys
SURVEY: standard set of questions or items to obtain self-reported attitudes, behaviours, or beliefs
can examine a wide rage of topics: they’re quick, allow you to gather data from a large group, and inexpensive
what are the negatives to surveys
- can only gather conscious, biased answers from people as people will likely answer in a way to make themselves look good
= impression management
= social desirability bias
- its crucial the item clearly measure the specific topic of interest and not some other characteristic (language must be clear and impartial)
what are case studies
In-depth look at a single individual
- it provides info about that person that helps a psychologist understand and analyze their mind and behaviour
- might not be generalizable
what does correlational research entail
tells u the relationship between 2 variables and how they change together
- if they change together and we can predict 1 for another, the variables are correlated
how can we measure correlation
the degree of relationship btwn 2 variables is expressed as (r) or the correlational coefficient
- it tells us the strength and direction of the variables
- the value of a correlation always falls between -100 and 1, and the closer it is to 1 the stronger the relationship
what’s the third variable problem
CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION
- correlation doesn’t tell us direction: which variable is the cause and which is the effect, we just know that there is a cause and effect somewhere
- when another variables that hasn’t been measured, accounts for the relationship between 2 others
- this third variable could also be called a confound (i.e. murders and ice cream sales increase in the summer, these two variables are correlated but they don’t cause each other, the 3rd variable is heat)
occurs when a third variable influences two other variables, making it seem as if they have a causal relationship.
what do researchers conduct correlational studies if it doesn’t show causation
it allows them to detect relationships and make initial predictions
- it also helps them explore relationships that cant be tested experimentally e.g. SAT and ACT scores predict academic performance
what is longitudinal design
- a special kind of systematic observation, that involves obtaining measures of the variables in multiple waves over time
- this allows you to see how certain factors affect them
what are the different types of variables
- independent variable: manipulated experimental factor, its the one the experimenter changes to see what its effects are
- dependent variable: outcome or factor that changes in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable (effect)
what is external validity
- the degree to which an experimental design actually reflects the real world issues its supposed to address
what is internal validity
- the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable
what is a double blind experiment
- neither the experimenter nor participants are aware of which participants are in which group (experimental/control) until results are out
what is the difference between random sampling and random assignments
- a sample that gives every member a chance to be chosen
- random assignment is dividing the chosen participants into groups but they all have an equal chance of being chosen
convenience sample: researchers select participants from those who are readily available
CRITIQUE: TOO MUCH PSYCHOLOGY INVOLVES WEIRD SAMPLES
Western
Educated
Industrialized
Rich
Democratic societies
- not well represented for most people
what are the 2 basic categories of stats
1) descriptive stats: mathematical procedures used to describe and summarize sets of data (mean, median, mode, range, std)
2) inferential stats: mathematical methods used to indicate whether results are generalizable (>0.5)
psychology researchers
scientists who study behaviour that, broadly defined, can include perceptions, thoughts, and emotions
science is defined by WHAT it investigates but by HOW it investigates
what are the four issues discussed by ethic guidelines
1) informed consent
2) confidentiality
3) debriefing
4) deception
what does informed consent entail
- all participants must know what their participation will involve and any/all risks
what does confidentiality entail
- researchers have to keep all data about the individuals private and when possible, anonymous
what does debriefing entail
when a study is done, the participants should be cognizant of the purpose and methods
- participants should also be informed of any information beforehand that won’t affect the result
what dies deception entail
- if you were to tell the participants beforehand what an experiment is about, it could harm the results, so researchers are purposefully deceitful, but it must be in a way that won’t harm them and they will be debriefed ASAP
what are some guidelines you should follow when consuming psychological information
1) avoid generalizing based on little info
2) distinguish between group results and individual needs
3) look for answers beyond a single study
4) avoid attributing causes where none have been found
5) reconsider the source of the information
empiricism vs determinism
empiricism- we are able to know things about the world through careful observation
determinism- all events are the product of your lawful, cause-and-effect relationships
methodology and epistemology
methodology- how we apply reason to scientific inquiry
epistemology-part of philosophy that studies knowledge and how one justifies such knowledge
empirical method
creating new knowledge through observation and experimentation
- collecting and interpreting objective evidence
self-determination theory
people are likely to feel fulfilled when their lives meet 3 important needs
1) relatedness
2) autonomy
3) competence
hypothesis that follows: people who follow extrinsic rewards are less fulfilled and happy than those who follow intrinsic rewards
naturalistic observation
archival research
physical trace research
1) viewing behaviour in a real-world settings
2) uses records produced by people, govt, and corp (I.E. bank records, social media posts)
3) remnants ; physical changes in the environment following some activity (I.E. weighing the litter left after a picnic)
what do questionnaires use
rating scale
- likert scales (Rensis Likert)
quasi-experimental design
a normal experiment but does not randomly assign participants to conditions because its impossible or unethical
i.e. forest fires
4 scenarios they are used
1) natural disasters
2) identity (stigma in healthcare among indigenous peoples)
3) impractical to measure variable (studying changes in happiness in ppl who won the lottery)
4) unethical to manipulate variable (studying people with diff types of brain injury)
demand characteristic
aspect of a study that communicates to participants how the experimenter wants them to behave
- form of experimenter bias (when experimenters expectations and biases influence the outcome of the researchers)
placebo effect
participants expectations, rather than the experimental Tx produce a particular outcome
communalism vs disinterestedness
communalism-willingness to share our findings with others
disinterestedness- attempt to be objective when evaluating evidence
confirmation bias vs belief perseverance
confirmation bias- tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypothesis and neglect or distort contradicting evidence
belief perseverance- tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them
logical fallacies
emotional reasoning fallacy
bandwagon fallacy
either-or fallacy: framing it like either/or even when its not
not me fallacy: believing we are immune from mistakes
bias blind spot: blind to our own perspectives but not to others’
oberg’s dictum
premise that we should keep our minds open, but not so open that we believe everything
base rate vs hindsight bias
base rate- how common a characteristic or behaviour is in the general population
hindsight bias- tendency to overstimulate how well we could have successfully forecasted known outcomes
halo effect
leniency effect
error of central tendency
halo effect- tendency of ratings of 1 positive characteristic to spill over to influence the ratings of another positive characteristic
leniency-tendency of raters to provide ratings that are overly generous
error of central tendency-an unwillingness to provide extreme ratings
nocebo effect
harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm
