Chapter 2 Flashcards by Gurnoor Unknown

what are the steps of the scientific method

1) observing something
2) making a hypothesis and predictions
3) testing through empirical research (collecting and analyzing data)
4) making conclusions
5) evaluating your theory

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what is a theory, variable, and hypothesis

theory: an idea that tries to explain a previous observation and any future observation
variable: anything that can change
hypothesis: an educated guess/tentative answer to a well framed question that comes logically from a theory, and can be tested

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what is an operational definition

an objective description of how a variable will be measured and observed in a study (i.e. using saliva samples to measure the amounts of cortisol (stress hormone))

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what indicates a research finding is reliable

it can be repeated, replicated, using different method by different people and they still get the same result

DIRECT REPLICATION: doing the study precisely as it was OG done

CONCEPTUAL REPLICATION: doing the study with diff methods or diff types of samples

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what is meta-analysis

a method that allows researchers to combine the results of several different studies on a similar topic so they get a stronger result
it also allows them to see if its consistent (i.e. a study examining the correlation btwn happiness and work success, looked at 43 studies to get a result)
more powerful than any single study result because they combine

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what are the 3 types of research

descriptive
correlational
experimental
- experiment=carefully regulated procedure where the researcher manipulates 1+ variables to influence another variable, and hold other variables constant
- NEED THIS TO DEMONSTRATE CAUSATION

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what does descriptive research entail

descriptive research is describing the basic dimensions of some variable/phenomenon, and defining what is is, how often it occurs
by itself, it cant prove what causes a phenomenon, includes observation, surveys interviews, case studies, etc.

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what makes observations effective

they have to be systematic, you must know who you’re observing, when/where you’re observing, how you will make the observation, and in what form you will document

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what are the benefits of surveys

SURVEY: standard set of questions or items to obtain self-reported attitudes, behaviours, or beliefs

can examine a wide rage of topics: they’re quick, allow you to gather data from a large group, and inexpensive

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what are the negatives to surveys

can only gather conscious, biased answers from people as people will likely answer in a way to make themselves look good

= impression management
= social desirability bias

its crucial the item clearly measure the specific topic of interest and not some other characteristic (language must be clear and impartial)

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what are case studies

In-depth look at a single individual
- it provides info about that person that helps a psychologist understand and analyze their mind and behaviour
- might not be generalizable

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what does correlational research entail

tells u the relationship between 2 variables and how they change together
- if they change together and we can predict 1 for another, the variables are correlated

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

how can we measure correlation

the degree of relationship btwn 2 variables is expressed as (r) or the correlational coefficient
- it tells us the strength and direction of the variables
- the value of a correlation always falls between -100 and 1, and the closer it is to 1 the stronger the relationship

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what’s the third variable problem

CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION
- correlation doesn’t tell us direction: which variable is the cause and which is the effect, we just know that there is a cause and effect somewhere

when another variables that hasn’t been measured, accounts for the relationship between 2 others
this third variable could also be called a confound (i.e. murders and ice cream sales increase in the summer, these two variables are correlated but they don’t cause each other, the 3rd variable is heat)

occurs when a third variable influences two other variables, making it seem as if they have a causal relationship.

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

why do researchers conduct correlational studies if it doesn’t show causation

it allows them to detect relationships and make initial predictions
- it also helps them explore relationships that cant be tested experimentally e.g. SAT and ACT scores predict academic performance

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what is longitudinal design

a special kind of systematic observation, that involves obtaining measures of the variables in multiple waves over time
this allows you to see how certain factors affect them

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what are the different types of variables

independent variable: manipulated experimental factor, its the one the experimenter changes to see what its effects are
dependent variable: outcome or factor that changes in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable (effect)

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what is external validity

the degree to which an experimental design actually reflects the real world issues its supposed to address

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what is internal validity

the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what is a double blind experiment

neither the experimenter nor participants are aware of which participants are in which group (experimental/control) until results are out

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what is the difference between random sampling and random assignments

a sample that gives every member a chance to be chosen
random assignment is dividing the chosen participants into groups but they all have an equal chance of being chosen

convenience sample: researchers select participants from those who are readily available

CRITIQUE: TOO MUCH PSYCHOLOGY INVOLVES WEIRD SAMPLES
Western
Educated
Industrialized
Rich
Democratic societies
- not well represented for most people

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what are the 2 basic categories of stats

1) descriptive stats: mathematical procedures used to describe and summarize sets of data (mean, median, mode, range, std)

2) inferential stats: mathematical methods used to indicate whether results are generalizable (>0.5)

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

psychology researchers

scientists who study behaviour that, broadly defined, can include perceptions, thoughts, and emotions

science is defined by WHAT it investigates but by HOW it investigates

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what are the four issues discussed by ethic guidelines

1) informed consent
2) confidentiality
3) debriefing
4) deception

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

what does informed consent entail

- all participants must know what their participation will involve and any/all risks

what does confidentiality entail

- researchers have to keep all data about the individuals private and when possible, anonymous

what does debriefing entail

when a study is done, the participants should be cognizant of the purpose and methods - participants should also be informed of any information beforehand that won't affect the result

what does deception entail

- if you were to tell the participants beforehand what an experiment is about, it could harm the results, so researchers are purposefully deceitful, but it must be in a way that won't harm them and they will be debriefed ASAP

what are some guidelines you should follow when consuming psychological information

1) avoid generalizing based on little info 2) distinguish between group results and individual needs 3) look for answers beyond a single study 4) avoid attributing causes where none have been found 5) reconsider the source of the information

empiricism vs determinism

empiricism- we are able to know things about the world through careful observation determinism- all events are the product of your lawful, cause-and-effect relationships

methodology and epistemology

methodology- how we apply reason to scientific inquiry epistemology-part of philosophy that studies knowledge and how one justifies such knowledge

empirical method

creating new knowledge through observation and experimentation - collecting and interpreting objective evidence

self-determination theory

people are likely to feel fulfilled when their lives meet 3 important needs 1) relatedness 2) autonomy 3) competence hypothesis that follows: people who follow extrinsic rewards are less fulfilled and happy than those who follow intrinsic rewards

naturalistic observation archival research physical trace research

1) viewing behaviour in a real-world settings 2) uses records produced by people, govt, and corp (I.E. bank records, social media posts) 3) remnants ; physical changes in the environment following some activity (I.E. weighing the litter left after a picnic)

what do questionnaires use

rating scale - likert scales (Rensis Likert)

quasi-experimental design

a normal experiment but does not randomly assign participants to conditions because its impossible or unethical i.e. forest fires 4 scenarios they are used 1) natural disasters 2) identity (stigma in healthcare among indigenous peoples) 3) impractical to measure variable (studying changes in happiness in ppl who won the lottery) 4) unethical to manipulate variable (studying people with diff types of brain injury)

demand characteristic

aspect of a study that communicates to participants how the experimenter wants them to behave - form of experimenter bias (when experimenters expectations and biases influence the outcome of the researchers)

placebo effect

participants expectations, rather than the experimental Tx produce a particular outcome

communalism vs disinterestedness

communalism-willingness to share our findings with others disinterestedness- attempt to be objective when evaluating evidence

confirmation bias vs belief perseverance

confirmation bias- tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypothesis and neglect or distort contradicting evidence belief perseverance- tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

logical fallacies

emotional reasoning fallacy bandwagon fallacy either-or fallacy: framing it like either/or even when its not not me fallacy: believing we are immune from mistakes bias blind spot: blind to our own perspectives but not to others'

oberg's dictum

premise that we should keep our minds open, but not so open that we believe everything

base rate vs hindsight bias

base rate- how common a characteristic or behaviour is in the general population hindsight bias- tendency to overstimulate how well we could have successfully forecasted known outcomes

halo effect leniency effect error of central tendency

halo effect- tendency of ratings of 1 positive characteristic to spill over to influence the ratings of another positive characteristic leniency-tendency of raters to provide ratings that are overly generous error of central tendency-an unwillingness to provide extreme ratings

nocebo effect

harm resulting from the mere expectation of harm

Nadias psychology professor gave her class a data set and asked the class to compute the measures of central tendency for the data. what mode of thinking is required to solve these problems

analytical thinking

Joe swerves his car to avoid hitting a pot hole. Randall tries to figure out how to apply a concept he learned in class to real life. Joe is using _____ Randall is using____

Joe=intuitive randall= analytical

what is associated with intuitive thinking

using heuristics

when psychologists use the term heuristic they refer to

mental decision-making strategies

suppose you sit in a cafeteria and count the number of people who use each checkout line: one staffed by a woman and one staffed by a man, this is an example of what

naturalistic observation design - observing people or animals in their natural environment. It's a qualitative research method that aims to record behavior without influencing the subjects

the ability of researchers to draw cause and effect inferences from naturalistic observation studies is limited because of

low internal validity

a researcher wishes to maximize the external validity of her research design. what research method is recommended

naturalistic observation design

researchers counted the number of cars and bikes on several streets downtown to make recommendations about where to build more bike lanes - which of the following is a weakness of this research design

low internal validity

naturalistic observation and case study methods are to _______ as correlational methods are to _______.

description; prediction

which research design is often used to provide existence proof that a given psychological phenomenon can occur + examines 1 or a small number of ppl in depth over an extended time

case study design - good at studying rare or unusual phenomena

case studies can be helpful in providing _____ or demonstrations that a given psychological phenomenon can occur

existence proofs

case studies tend to be _____ in external validity and _____ in internal validity

low; low

research method that would be the worst for generalization to a wide audience

case study

if you calculate the similarity in movie ratings between 2 people who watch the same movies, which of the following are you checking

reliability - showing similarity is linked to reliability

dr. Reese is conducting research about the content differences between truthful and false crime reports she has 3 assistants who help her code reports, to ensure the coding is consistent she compares the scores

interrater validity ; how consistently different people rate or assess the same thing.

most important characteristic for a psychological measure to have is

validity

Sandra has completed an online survey about recycling habits and minimized how often she throws empty cans and bottles into the garbage - her responses reflect what type of bias A _____ refers to a tendency to distort answers to self-report questionnaires, often in a socially desirable direction

response set

malingering

someone lies on a survey in order to seem mentally disturbed or ill

researchers include survey questions that ask about implausible or nonexistent things because

they want to identify response sets

horns effect

a cognitive process in which we immediately ascribe negative attitudes or behaviours to someone based on one aspect of their appearance or character

halo effect

causes people to form general impressions based on a single trait.

correlations allow researchers to make ____ about the world, whereas observational and case studies allow us to _____ it

predictions;describe

what is strongly associated with illusory correlations

confirmation bias

in correlational designs, the difference among participants are _____ whereas in experimental designs the difference is _____

measures; created

what component is necessary *aside from random assignment* for a study to be considered

manipulation of an independent variables

the only research design that allows us to make cause and effect design

experimental

a key aspect of an experiment that is missing from other research design is

random assignment

type of research design involves one group of participants being assigned to the experimental condition and another group of different participants assigned to the control condition

between-subject design

within-subject design

research design method of assigning participants to treatment groups

any difference between experiment and control groups other than the independent variable - researcher wants to avoid the presence of ____

confounding - placebo and Rosenthal effects are examples Rosenthal effects=high expectations lead to improved performance, while low expectations lead to poor performance.

what ethical requirement was not present when nearly 400 African-American men were exposed to syphilis and then not treated for its symptoms

informed consent

left to right

negatively skewed

right to left

positively skewed

variability

variability is the extent to which a behavior or trait varies within a group - dispersion uses all data= standard deviation simplest measurement=range

statistical significance

results are not likely due to chance

increasing the sample size in a research study increases the chance of finding results that are _______ significant, but not necessarily _______ significant

statistically;practically

what 2 measures would help misled someone

mean and range

appearance of a scientific controversy where none exists, resulting from balanced coverage of a topic is

pseudosymmetry

report about scientific discovery minimizes the less important details

leveling

______ occurs when you read about a psychological study in the newspaper and notice that the main message is exaggerated

sharpening

in the 1930s, JB Rhine at Duke used a set of Zener cards to study

extrasensory perception - however main problem involved replication

what core aspect of the scientific method was used to discount Bems 2011 claims that he found scientific proof of precognition

the results were not replicable

mentalists who specialize in psychology magic may offer clients a _____, which refers to the art of persuading someone you've met that u know all abt them

cold reading

multiple end points

Multiple endpoints refer to the use of several outcome measures in research studies, often to capture different aspects of a phenomenon.

sleight of tongue

behaviour technique to trick someone

which of the following is an example of the multiple end points techniques associated with psychic forecasting

- there will be a major weather event that ruins a lot of lives