Chapter 1 Flashcards
1
Q
what is psychology
A
the scientific study of behaviour and metal processes
2
Q
science is a search for
A
knowledge and understanding using evidence based methodology
- using these systematic methods to observe human and animal behaviour, we can draw conclusion
comes from a latin impurical of thinking
3
Q
what is behaviour and mental processes and how do they differ?
A
behaviour is anything that we actively do that can be observed,
while mental processes are our thoughts, feelings, and motives that cant be observed
4
Q
what does psyche mean
A
greek for the word soul
5
Q
what does -ology mean
A
the study of something
6
Q
what do scientific psychologists do
A
they systematically study the brain, mind, and behaviour
- psychologists conduct research and rely on that research to provide evidence fro their conclusions
- they examine available evidence about some topic and see how strongly the data supports their hypothesis, evidence that disconfirms it, and see if they explored all the possible variables and explanations
7
Q
what 4 attributes are at the core of this scientific approach
A
critical thinking
skepticism
objectivity
curiosity
8
Q
what is critical thinking
A
process of reflecting deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence
- thinking critically means asking how we know something so they question and test what are so called “facts”
- critical thinking reduces the possibility of conclusions being biased
9
Q
what is skepticism
A
challenging whether a fact is really true
- questioning what everyone knows
- a skeptic knows that is sth sounds too good to be true, it probably is
10
Q
what is the distinction between science and pseudoscience
A
“pseudo” means fake so pseudoscience is info that uses scientific terminology but isn’t supported by proper scientific research
i.e. astrology
you can tell an explanation is pseudoscience rather than science by seeing if the person accepts evidence to the contrary
11
Q
what is the scientific method
A
observation
hypothesize
prediction
experimenting
analyzing
concluding
12
Q
what are one of the ways scientists are objective
A
- apply the empirical method to learn about the world
- the empirical method means gaining knowledge through observation of events, collection of data, and logical reasoning
13
Q
what is objectivity
A
- seeing things how they really are, not as we would like them to be
- looking at evidence and not guesses
14
Q
what was freud’s view on psychology
A
he believed that most of human behaviour is caused by dark, unpleasant, unconscious impulses trying to be expressed
15
Q
what is positive psychology
A
- a branch of psychology that emphasizes human strengths
- one goal is to bring a greater balance by focusing how and why things go right
16
Q
who was William Wundt and what did he do
A
- a German philosopher/physician who founded the first psychology lab
- he is known as the founding father of modern psychology
17
Q
what did William wundt’s approach consist of
A
- one of his students, EB titchener most prominently and his collaborators concentration on discovering basic elements/structures of mental processes so their approach was called structuralism
- their method was introspection (looking inside)
[saw the mind as ‘what’ and rigid structures’
18
Q
who was William James and what was his contribution to psychology
A
- a psychologist and philosopher, his main question was what the mind is for and how the functions and purposes of the mind ad behaviour connect a person to their environment
recogizes the shortcomings of structuralism - this view is called FUNCTIONALISM, functionalists focused on human interactions with the outside world and the purpose of thoughts
- saw the mind as flexible and the “why”
he’s the one that rlly brought psychology to the world even though wundt is regarded as the founder of modern psych
19
Q
how do functionalism and natural selection connect
A
traits and processes are shaped and adapted by how efficiently they (the mind/organism) succeed in its environment
20
Q
what are the different approaches to psychology
A
- biological
- behavioural
- psychodynamic
- humanistic
- cognitive
- evolutionary
- sociocultural
21
Q
what does the behaviour approach entail
A
- emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioural responses and how it can be linked to one’s environment
- 2 behaviourists are John B Watson (1878-1958) and BF Skinner (1904-1990)
- Skinner emphasized that psychology is about what people do not, their unseen thoughts, etc. he also said that reinforcement using rewards/punishment have a role in behaviour
- B.F. Skinner developed the concept operant conditioning to how we learn behaviours
22
Q
what does the psychodynamic approach entail
A
emphasizes unconscious thoughts, biological desires, the societal pressures, and early childhood experiences
- it focuses on how impulses and desires can influence how people think, feel, and behave
- sigmund freud (1856-1939) was the founding father and he theorizes that talking about ones childhood memories unlocks unconscious conflicts
23
Q
what does the humanistic approach entail
A
emphasizes a persons positive qualities, capacity for positive growth, and the ability to choose your destiny
- stresses that people aren’t tied to their upbringing/environment but have the ability to dictate how their lives will go
24
Q
what does the cognitive approach entail
A
- emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing: focusing on info processing and how the mind interprets, weights, stores and applies information
- sees the mind as an active and aware problem-solving system
- this constraints behaviourist approach
25
what does the evolutionary approach entail
- some argue that all of psychology emerges of evolutionary theory
- it focuses on adaptation, reproduction, and NS on the determinant of human behaviour
26
what does the sociocultural approach entail
sees how social and cultural variables influence behaviour and how being in a particular social/cultural context can help us understand actions
27
what are practitioners of psychology
individuals who are focused on helping others work through problems
28
what is evidence-based practice
using therapeutic tools which have been proven effective using empirical research
29
what's the difference between a clinical psychologist and a psychiatrist
clinical psychologists have a doctoral degree in psychology (4-5 years of grad school) and one year of internship in a mental health facility
- a psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in abnormal behaviour and psychotherapy: can prescribe drugs
30
what are the approx percentages of settings where psychologists work
~ 35% ACADEMIC
~ 24% CLINICAL
~ 22 % PRIVATE PRACTICE
~ 12% INDUSTRIAL
~ 4% SCHOOLS
~ 4% OTHER
31
How many subdivisions in the American Psychological Association
56
32
what do physiological psychologists do
focus on the physical processes that underlie mental operations
(visions, memory)
33
what do behavioural neuroscientists do
- focus on biological processes, like the brains role in behaviour
34
what do sensory/perception researchers do
focus on physical systems and psychological processes that allow us to experience the world (smelling, sight)
35
what do researchers who focus on learning do
study the basic principles of learning from behavioural/cognitive perspectives
36
what do cognitive psychologists do
focus on attention. consciousness, information processing, and memory
- also interested in problem solving, decision making, intelligence, and expertise
37
what do developmental psychologists do
how ppl become who they are, from conception to death
- they study child/adult development and aging
38
what do researchers who study motivation and emotion do
- study now individuals persist to attain a goal ad how rewards affect that
- they also focus on the physiological processes that have a role in emotional experience
39
what are some real-life evidence of the body's impact on the mind
- when you're sleep deprived, you're likely to experience brain fog, poor emotional regulation, and a short attention span
- eating a nutritious diet has been linked to lower rates of anxiety and depression
40
evolutionary theory can be summarized by 4 key points
1) variation
2) competition
3) selective advantage
4) inheritance
41
neuroscience
scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics and biochemistry of the nervous system
- emphasizes that the brain and nervous system are central to understanding behaviours, thoughts, and emotions
42
psychopathology
study of psychological disorders and the development of diagnostic categories and treatments for those disorders
43
different forms of psychologists
- health
- industrial and organizational
- community
- school
- environmental
- forensic
- sport
- cross-cultural
health: emphasizes psychological factors, lifestyle, and nature of healthcare delivery system
industrial: workplace-based (HR)
community: improving quality of relationships among society
school: school-based
environmental: interactions between people and their physical environment
forensic: legal system
sport: sport-based
cross-cultural: study of culture's role in understanding behaviour, thought, and emotion (compares amongst diff cultures to find overlap and differences)
44
bio psychological model and health psychology
- health is impacted by the body and mind inseparably
- critics of health psychology find that the discipline focuses on only a few behaviours that affect health
45
mysterians
believe that certain questions regarding human nature are unanswerable
46
multicollinearity
overlap among diff causes of behaviour
47
materialism
vs
idealism
materialism (marx)
only material things
(those that can be derived from the senses) exist
idealism (hegel)
some of reality exists separately from the sensible world
48
empiricism vs rationalism
empiricism (HUME)
belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience (bottom-up)
rationalism (DESCARTES)
at least some knowledge can be known independent of the senses (top-down)
49
realist view vs relativist view
realist view (popper)
sees theories as soft mental images involving values and beliefs while facts are hard, settled, and observable
(failing to confirm the null hypothesis=probable truth)
relativist view (foucault)
the idea that the powerful influence of our thoughts often dictates what we observe as facts
- we only know the world through our consciousness
50
2 approaches to knowledge
logical positivism
- assumes reality is independent of the knower
- empirical
- objective
social constructionism
- assumes researchers construct knowledge that is influenced by the social context of their inquiry
- subjective
51
behaviourism
focuses on uncovering the general laws of learning by looking outside the organism to rewards, punishment, and behaviour delivered by or present in the environment
*founded by John B Watson and BF Skinner*
52
Cognitivism
proposes that our thinking (cognition) affects our behaviour in powerful ways
*Jean Piaget and Ulric Neisser*
53
Mind and Body Debate
"are our behaviours due entirely to the actions of our nervous system or are they also due to the action of another entity?"
mind-body monists- the mind=brain and nervous system in action
mind-body dualists- mind is more than the brain and nervous system
54
which level of psychological analysis would focus on the experience of anxiety or anger
psychological
55
janet is very friendly and outgoing, and she makes friends very easily. People are typically very nice to Janet, because of her friendliness, and as a result Janet is even more likely to be friendly. Which of the following terms is illustrated by this example
reciprocal determinism
56
reciprocal determinism
a theory that explains how a person's behavior, environment, and cognition interact and influence each other.
(Albert bandura)
57
dr. ortega is a researcher in Spain where she conducts research on how Spanish culture shapes body image in young Spanish teenage girls. Dr. Ortega is using which approach to cross-cultural psychology
emic
58
emic vs etic
emic: relating to or denoting an approach to the study or description of a particular language or culture in terms of its internal elements and their functioning rather than in terms of any existing external framework.
[SINGLE CULTURE]
etic: relating to or denoting an approach to the study or description of a particular language or culture that is general, nonstructural, and objective in its perspective. [CROSS-CULTURE]
59
What early American psychologist wanted to identify the basic elements of psychology in order to create a "map" or "periodic table" of consciousness
Edward Titchener
60
Which of the following phenomena caused a problem for structuralism, because it demonstrated that some aspects of psychology are outside of conscious awareness
imageless thought
61
which of the following is a lasting contribution by the school of thought known as structuralism
it emphasized the need for systematic observation
62
which of following fields was most influenced by Charles Darwin theory of evolution by natural selection
functionalism
63
what psychological school or thought was most corned with the influence of learning on a person's actions or thoughts
behaviourism
64
the phrase "black box" psychology is associated with which theoretical framework
behaviourism
65
which perspective was among the first to focus on the need for objective, rather than subjective, evidence
behaviourism
66
which theoretical approach argues that we conceptualize the world in different ways, and, thinking, interpretation and insights are central to psychology
cognitivism
67
which theoretical framework proposed that our interpretation of rewards and punishment is a crucial determinant of our behaviour
cognitivism
68
which theoretical framework proposed that our lives are full of symbols or things that represent other things
psychoanalysis
69
early thinkers in philosophy and psychology believed that we are shaped exclusively by our environments and we are born with a "blank state"
- these hikers would endorse which of the following concepts
tabula rasa
70
which of the following provides strong evidence AGAINST tabula rasa
genetic traits that influence intelligence and personality
71
which of the following is consistent with BF Skinners argument that free will is an illusion
people often lack direct understanding of the causes of their own behaviour
72
some people believe that the earth is flat, because that's what they can observe when they look out at the world, what defines this illustration of error
naive realism
- the tendency to believe that one's perception of the world is objective and unbiased. It can also refer to the idea that our senses provide direct knowledge of reality.
-
73
empiricism is an important part of psychological science, what does empiricism require
that we acquire knowledge through observation
74
in science, a scientific theory is defined as an
explanation for a large number of findings
75
in science, an explanatory device that connects multiple scientific findings is called an
scientific theory
76
to explain a wide range of observations, a psychologist would use
a scientific theory
77
police interrogators often assume that people brought in for questioning have important knowledge about the crime in question...
if an interrogator asks questions that assume the guilt of a suspect rather than asking questions that would exonerate the suspect, then ___ may occur
confirmation bias
78
in Alice in wonderland, the Cheshire Cat tells Alice that "most everyone's mad here" and Alice protests,"But how do you know Im not mad?" "Because," says the Cat, "if you weren't, you wouldn't have come here.", What does this example illustrate
confirmation bias
79
which of the following is described in the textbook as being the mother of all biases
- most important for scientists to counteract
confirmation bias
80
milo and shirley have been happily married for 28 years, they believe they made it to this milestone because they know each other so well. They recently did a quiz that showed them that they don't know each other as well as they thought. This evidence didn't change their minds, however, and they still believe that their love is because they know nearly everything about each other. This is an example of:
belief perseverance
81
which of the following categories involves claims that are always untestable, and therefore unfalsifiable
metaphysics
82
which of the following makes it so important for people who read popular psychology to be able to distinguish real from bogus claims
the popular psychology industry has no quality control
83
according to your textbook, what percentage of self-help books contain claims that are scientifically untested
95%
84
ad hoc immunizing
hypothesis that is used to protect a theory from being disproven.
i.e. a Dr making excuses to prevent his claim from being replicated in an experiment
85
proponents of speed-reading courses or facilitated communication hold to their beliefs despite contradictory evidence
lack of self correction
86
our brains are good at organizing information into manageable categories, why is this bad for scientist
it can lead us to find patterns where none actually exist
87
A company that promotes exercise programs provides data from studies that were all conducted by the company itself
- all of the results show its effective
lack of peer review
88
as you read an article about anti-aging, the article dismisses evidence from scientists
lack of self-correction with contrary evidence
89
pseudoscientific claims tend to to be based on research findings that already exist
absence of connectivity to other research
i.e.
programs that promise to teach speed reading techniques in treater for money even though these claims don't align with data on memory and info processing
90
stating an unfalsifiable hypothesis
overuse of ad hoc immunizing hypothesis
91
using needlessly technical language to explain phenomena refers to
psychobabble
92
in psuedoscience: incorrect theories are NEVER
corrected or changed
93
if you don't know if an anecdote is representative
it could be about an exceptional person or circumstance rather than a typical one
94
because people are open to exploring and understanding the mysteries of the world
be drawn to the pseudoscience
95
our tendency to perceive meaningful connections among unrelated phenomena is called
patterinicty:
- carmen is thinking about her best friend who lives in France and thinks about her when she suddenly calls and she says her friend must have ESP
96
terror management theory says we are most likely to believe extraordinary claims when we are reminded of our own
death
97
according to the tenets of terror management theory, why does mortality salience lead people to develop paranormal beliefs
it encourages thinking about dimensions of life beyond our own
98
traps in thinking that can lead to mistaken conclusions are called
logical fallacies
99
confusing the origin of a belief with its correctness is a fallacy based on
genesis
100
genetic fallacy
a logical fallacy that occurs when someone accepts or rejects an argument based on its source, rather than its content
ex. doubting freud's theories bc he was a cocaine user
101
naturalistic fallacy
that what is natural is also good or right.
- eating more sweets bc humans have a genetic predisposition to prefer sweets over salts
102
argument from adverse consequences
logical fallacy that attempts to prove a statement false by claiming that its consequences would be negative
- cant argue that there's a diff between man and woman bc its sexist
103
argument from antiquity
a logical fallacy that uses tradition as the sole justification for a claim
- Bible based theories
104
appeal to ignorance
a logical fallacy that assumes a claim is true or false because there is no evidence to the contrary.
- since scientists cant prove aliens didn't create crop circles, they must've created crop circles
105
drawing conclusions based on insufficient evidence
hasty generalization fallacy
106
opportunity cost
investment of time, energy, and effort in a questionable treatment that can lead ppl to forfeit the chance of obtain an effective treatment
ex.
- someone use homeopathic treatments, not getting results, but still refusing to go the clinical route bc they believe its poisonous
107
skeptic
someone who considers the available evidence carefully
- accepts claims on the basis of supportive scientific evidence
- rely on objective evidence
108
ruling out rival hypotheses
- a scientific principle that involves considering alternative explanations for data
examples:
- Researchers pointed out that any effect of TFT could be due to other aspects of TX rather than tapping
- doctor finding a relationship between foot size and criminal behaviour, determining large feet=criminal behaviour
109
ruling out competing explanations
- actively identifying and systematically eliminating alternative interpretations or factors that could potentially explain the observed results in a study
110
which philosopher suggested a useful theory had to be falsifiable
karl popper
- when he suggested that good hypotheses or theories are risky, there must be a large possibility they could be proven wrong
- he would be impressed if you hypothesis if it made a risky prediction
111
a psychologist should state research questions such that new evidence could either support or refute the question
- this is the critical thinking principle of
falsifiability
example:
- humans have invisible souls that guide behaviours
- common-sense proverbs being opposite reccs.
112
which philosopher proposed that extraordinary claims required more evidence than usual
hume
113
basic vs applied research
basic: fundamental questions about the mind and behaviour
applied: uses psychology to address real-world problems
114
parsimony
Occam's razor
- simple one is the most valid one
