Chapter 2 Flashcards
cytoplasm contains DNA, usually in the
form of a single circular molecule located in ___
Prokaryotic cell; nucleoid
region
Size of cells:
Prokaryotic:
Eukaryotic:
Prokaryotic: 100 nm–10 μm
Eukaryotic: 10–100 μm
Memorize the organelles and their memorable phase: 12
Plasma membrane= fortification;
Cytoplasm= environment;
Mitochondria=powerplant;
Ribosome=factories;
Lysosome=stomach;
Endoplasmic Reticulum=pipe system;
Golgi apparatus=delivery center;
Centrosome=anchor;
Peroxisome=firemen;
Cytoskeleton=shapeshifter;
Vacuole=compartment;
Nucleus= brain
Separates the interior
of the cell from the
outside environment.
▪ acts in the transport
of substances
▪ externally proteins facing
act as receptors and cell
recognition.
Plasma membrane
Fluid part enclosed by
the membrane, contains
organelles.
Cellular region between
the nuclear and plasma
membrane
Cytoplasm
Produce energy for the cell,
break down carbohydrates
and some Durations lipids to form molecule ATP
Mitochondria
Translate RNA into proteins
(protein synthesis
Ribosome
Vesicles filled with digestive
proteins, can absorb
something and break it
down into recyclable pieces
Lysosome
lipid synthesis:
protein synthesis:
lipid synthesis: smooth ER
protein synthesis: rough ER
It tags vesicles and
proteins to help them get
carried to their correct
destinations
Golgi
apparatus
Organizes and produces
the microtubules
of the cell’s cytoskeleton
Centrosome
Vesicles that defend (or
neutralize) the cell from
free radicals
Peroxisome
modifies the cell’s
shape and ensures
mechanical resistance
to deformation
Cytoskeleton
Enclosed storage vessels
which are filled with
water
containing
inorganic and organic
molecules
Vacuole
Contains most of the genetic material,
in the form of DNA
Nucleus
ORGANELLES THAT UNIQUE FOR PLANT CELLS
central vacuole;
chloroplast
Large membrane-enclosed
compartment.
Used to store ions, waste products, pigments, protective compounds
central vacuole
Membrane-enclosed organelle containing stacked structures
(___) of chlorophyll-containing membrane sacs called ___surrounded by an inner fluid (___)
chloroplast;
grana;
thylakoids;
stroma
Double-membrane structure;
separates nucleoplasm & cytoplasm.
regulates the passage of substances
to and from the nucleus
Nuclear
envelope
Dense spherical (non-membrane
bound);composed of ribosomal RNA
and protein
Nucleoli
Granular, thread-like material composed of DNA and histone proteins. DNA contains genes
chromatin
STROMA=
THYLAKOID=
CYTOPLASM=
mitochondrial matrix=
INNER MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE=
STROMA= CALVIN CYCLE
THYLAKOID= PHOTOSYNTHESIS
CYTOPLASM= GLYCOLYSIS
mitochondrial matrix= TCA CYCLE
INNER MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE= ETC
In a DNA molecule,
there is an equal number between the bases (A) (T), and between
the bases (G) (C).
Chargaff’s Rule:
: building block of DNA
nucleotide
nucleotide components: 3
pentose sugar (deoxyribose);
phosphate molecule, and a nitrogenous base (either purines (adenine &
guanine), or pyrimidines (thymine & cytosine
Two strands of nucleotides are joined together by ___
between the bases;
hydrogen bonds
DNA is a double
stranded helix with a___,” in which the bases are aligned in the center of
the helix
sugar
phosphate “backbone
: refers to the carbons of the deoxyribose sugar; nucleotides have 5’ and
3’ ends; important during the replication of
DNA and routine manipulation of DNA in the
laboratory
polarity
the phosphate at carbon 5 is not
bonded to another nucleotide, but carbon 3 is
involved in a phosphodiester bond
✓ 5’ end:
the phosphate at carbon 5 is bonded
to another nucleotide, but carbon 3 is not
joined to another molecule
3’ end:
: the polarity of each strand is reversed relative to each other
antiparallel
is a theory
stating that genetic information flows only in one direction (state this)
central dogma of molecular biology;
from DNA, to RNA, to protein, or RNA
directly to protein.
three major steps of DNA replication:
1.) opening of the double helix and separation of the DNA strands
2.) priming of the template strand
3.) assembly of the new DNA segment
Different Types of RNA: 3
mRNA (messenger RNA)
tRNA (transfer RNA)
rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
carries the code for the synthesis of proteins;
acts as “messenger
mRNA (messenger RNA)
approx. ____nucleotides; adaptor molecules
that translate genetic information into protein sequence by delivering
amino acids to the protein synthesis machinery during translation
tRNA (transfer RNA);
75 to 90
short single strand molecules of around ____ nucleotides; part of a ribosome; responsible for reading the order
of amino acids and linking amino acids together
rRNA (ribosomal RNA);
1,500 to 4,700
refers to any change in the nucleotide sequence as a results of a failure of the system to revert the change
mutation
Mutations may arise from
(3); may be caused by exposure to ___
faulty deletions, insertions, or exchanges of nucleotides in the genetic material.
;mutagens
Types of Changes in DNA
Germ-line mutations
Somatic mutations
is an eye cancer that begind in the retina- the sensitive lining on the inside of your eye
Retinoblastoma
class of mutation
Point mutation;
Chromosomal mutation;
Copy number variation
Point mutation (3)
Substitution
Insertion
Deletion
One base is incorrectly added during replication and replaces the pair in the
corresponding position on
the complementary strand
Disease linked:
Substitution;
Sickle-cell anemia
One or more extra nucleotides are inserted
into replicating DNA, often resulting in a
frameshift
Disease linked:
Insertion;
One form of beta
thalassemia
One or more nucleotides is “skipped” during
replication or otherwise excised, often
resulting in a frameshift
Disease linked:
Deletion;
Cystic fibrosis
One region of a chromosome is
flipped and reinserted
Disease linked:
Inversion;
Opitz Kaveggia syndrome
Chromosomal mutation
Inversion
Deletion
Duplication
Translocation
A region of a chromosome is lost, resulting in the absence of all the
genes in that area
Disease linked:
Deletion;
Cri du chat syndrome
A region of a chromosome is repeated, resulting in an increase in dosage from the genes in that region
Disease linked:
Duplication;
some cancers
A region from one chromosome is
aberrantly attached to another chromosome
Disease linked:
Translocation:
form of leukemia
Copy number variation
gene amplification
Expanding trinucleotide repeat
The number of tandem copies of
a locus is increased
Disease linked:
Gene amplification;
some breast cancer
The normal number of repeated
trinucleotide sequences is expanded
Disease linked:
Expanding
trinucleotide
repeat;
Fragile X syndrome, Huntington’s disease
list of organisms included in the HGP
E. coli, baker’s yeast, fruit fly,
nematode and mouse
involves exact order of the
bases in DNA — the As, Cs, Gs and Ts that
make upsegments of DNA
DNA sequencing
particular method for
DNA sequencing used in HGP called
Sanger DNA
sequencing,
Whose genome was sequenced by the Human Genome
Project?
approx. 70%- 1 individual of blended ancestry;
approx 30%- 19 individuals mostly from european ancestry
Most of the original human genome sequence came from volunteers living in ____
Researchers at the ____, located in Buffalo.
Buffalo, New York.;
Roswell Park Cancer Institute
In the United States, the researchers were funded by the ______, which created the ___ in 1988
Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health;
Office for Human Genome Research
Office for Human Genome Research in 1988 was later renamed
the ___ in 1990 and then the _____ in 1997
National Center for Human Genome Research;
National Human Genome
Research Institute
6 countries involved in HGP which later become known as ___
United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan and China;
International Human Genome Sequencing
Consortium
State the progress of HGP:
In June 2000=
April 2003=
March 2022=
June 2000= draft at 90%; 150k gaps
April 2003= draft at 92%; <400 gaps
March 2022= 1st truly complete (Telomere-to-Telomere (T2T) consortium)
SCIENTIFIC GOALS OF THE U.S. HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (7)
1.) Mapping and Sequencing the Human Genome
2.) Model organisms
3.) Informatics: Data collection and analysis
4.) Ethical, Legal, and Social Considerations
5.) Research training
6.) Technology Development
7.) Technology Transfer
