Chapter 2 Flashcards by Jasmine

cytoplasm contains DNA, usually in the
form of a single circular molecule located in ___

Prokaryotic cell; nucleoid
region

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Size of cells:

Prokaryotic:
Eukaryotic:

Prokaryotic: 100 nm–10 μm
Eukaryotic: 10–100 μm

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Memorize the organelles and their memorable phase: 12

Plasma membrane= fortification;
Cytoplasm= environment;
Mitochondria=powerplant;
Ribosome=factories;
Lysosome=stomach;
Endoplasmic Reticulum=pipe system;
Golgi apparatus=delivery center;
Centrosome=anchor;
Peroxisome=firemen;
Cytoskeleton=shapeshifter;
Vacuole=compartment;
Nucleus= brain

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Separates the interior
of the cell from the
outside environment.
▪ acts in the transport
of substances
▪ externally proteins facing
act as receptors and cell
recognition.

Plasma membrane

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Fluid part enclosed by
the membrane, contains
organelles.
Cellular region between
the nuclear and plasma
membrane

Cytoplasm

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Produce energy for the cell,
break down carbohydrates
and some Durations lipids to form molecule ATP

Mitochondria

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Translate RNA into proteins
(protein synthesis

Ribosome

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Vesicles filled with digestive
proteins, can absorb
something and break it
down into recyclable pieces

Lysosome

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lipid synthesis:
protein synthesis:

lipid synthesis: smooth ER
protein synthesis: rough ER

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It tags vesicles and
proteins to help them get
carried to their correct
destinations

Golgi
apparatus

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Organizes and produces
the microtubules
of the cell’s cytoskeleton

Centrosome

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Vesicles that defend (or
neutralize) the cell from
free radicals

Peroxisome

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modifies the cell’s
shape and ensures
mechanical resistance
to deformation

Cytoskeleton

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Enclosed storage vessels
which are filled with
water
containing
inorganic and organic
molecules

Vacuole

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Contains most of the genetic material,
in the form of DNA

Nucleus

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ORGANELLES THAT UNIQUE FOR PLANT CELLS

central vacuole;
chloroplast

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Large membrane-enclosed
compartment.
Used to store ions, waste products, pigments, protective compounds

central vacuole

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Membrane-enclosed organelle containing stacked structures
(___) of chlorophyll-containing membrane sacs called ___surrounded by an inner fluid (___)

chloroplast;
grana;
thylakoids;
stroma

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Double-membrane structure;
separates nucleoplasm & cytoplasm.
regulates the passage of substances
to and from the nucleus

Nuclear
envelope

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Dense spherical (non-membrane
bound);composed of ribosomal RNA
and protein

Nucleoli

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Granular, thread-like material composed of DNA and histone proteins. DNA contains genes

chromatin

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STROMA=
THYLAKOID=
CYTOPLASM=
mitochondrial matrix=
INNER MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE=

STROMA= CALVIN CYCLE
THYLAKOID= PHOTOSYNTHESIS
CYTOPLASM= GLYCOLYSIS
mitochondrial matrix= TCA CYCLE
INNER MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE= ETC

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In a DNA molecule,
there is an equal number between the bases (A) (T), and between
the bases (G) (C).

Chargaff’s Rule:

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: building block of DNA

nucleotide

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nucleotide components: 3

pentose sugar (deoxyribose); phosphate molecule, and a nitrogenous base (either purines (adenine & guanine), or pyrimidines (thymine & cytosine

Two strands of nucleotides are joined together by ___ between the bases;

hydrogen bonds

DNA is a double stranded helix with a___,” in which the bases are aligned in the center of the helix

sugar phosphate “backbone

: refers to the carbons of the deoxyribose sugar; nucleotides have 5’ and 3’ ends; important during the replication of DNA and routine manipulation of DNA in the laboratory

polarity

the phosphate at carbon 5 is not bonded to another nucleotide, but carbon 3 is involved in a phosphodiester bond

✓ 5’ end:

the phosphate at carbon 5 is bonded to another nucleotide, but carbon 3 is not joined to another molecule

3’ end:

: the polarity of each strand is reversed relative to each other

antiparallel

is a theory stating that genetic information flows only in one direction (state this)

central dogma of molecular biology; from DNA, to RNA, to protein, or RNA directly to protein.

three major steps of DNA replication:

1.) opening of the double helix and separation of the DNA strands 2.) priming of the template strand 3.) assembly of the new DNA segment

Different Types of RNA: 3

mRNA (messenger RNA) tRNA (transfer RNA) rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

carries the code for the synthesis of proteins; acts as “messenger

mRNA (messenger RNA)

approx. ____nucleotides; adaptor molecules that translate genetic information into protein sequence by delivering amino acids to the protein synthesis machinery during translation

tRNA (transfer RNA); 75 to 90

short single strand molecules of around ____ nucleotides; part of a ribosome; responsible for reading the order of amino acids and linking amino acids together

rRNA (ribosomal RNA); 1,500 to 4,700

refers to any change in the nucleotide sequence as a results of a failure of the system to revert the change

mutation

Mutations may arise from (3); may be caused by exposure to ___

faulty deletions, insertions, or exchanges of nucleotides in the genetic material. ;mutagens

Types of Changes in DNA

Germ-line mutations Somatic mutations

is an eye cancer that begind in the retina- the sensitive lining on the inside of your eye

Retinoblastoma

class of mutation

Point mutation; Chromosomal mutation; Copy number variation

Point mutation (3)

Substitution Insertion Deletion

One base is incorrectly added during replication and replaces the pair in the corresponding position on the complementary strand Disease linked:

Substitution; Sickle-cell anemia

One or more extra nucleotides are inserted into replicating DNA, often resulting in a frameshift Disease linked:

Insertion; One form of beta thalassemia

One or more nucleotides is "skipped" during replication or otherwise excised, often resulting in a frameshift Disease linked:

Deletion; Cystic fibrosis

One region of a chromosome is flipped and reinserted Disease linked:

Inversion; Opitz Kaveggia syndrome

Chromosomal mutation

Inversion Deletion Duplication Translocation

A region of a chromosome is lost, resulting in the absence of all the genes in that area Disease linked:

Deletion; Cri du chat syndrome

A region of a chromosome is repeated, resulting in an increase in dosage from the genes in that region Disease linked:

Duplication; some cancers

A region from one chromosome is aberrantly attached to another chromosome Disease linked:

Translocation: form of leukemia

Copy number variation

gene amplification Expanding trinucleotide repeat

The number of tandem copies of a locus is increased Disease linked:

Gene amplification; some breast cancer

The normal number of repeated trinucleotide sequences is expanded Disease linked:

Expanding trinucleotide repeat; Fragile X syndrome, Huntington's disease

list of organisms included in the HGP

E. coli, baker’s yeast, fruit fly, nematode and mouse

involves exact order of the bases in DNA — the As, Cs, Gs and Ts that make upsegments of DNA

DNA sequencing

particular method for DNA sequencing used in HGP called

Sanger DNA sequencing,

Whose genome was sequenced by the Human Genome Project?

approx. 70%- 1 individual of blended ancestry; approx 30%- 19 individuals mostly from european ancestry

Most of the original human genome sequence came from volunteers living in ____ Researchers at the ____, located in Buffalo.

Buffalo, New York.; Roswell Park Cancer Institute

In the United States, the researchers were funded by the ______, which created the ___ in 1988

Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health; Office for Human Genome Research

Office for Human Genome Research in 1988 was later renamed the ___ in 1990 and then the _____ in 1997

National Center for Human Genome Research; National Human Genome Research Institute

6 countries involved in HGP which later become known as ___

United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan and China; International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium

State the progress of HGP: In June 2000= April 2003= March 2022=

June 2000= draft at 90%; 150k gaps April 2003= draft at 92%; <400 gaps March 2022= 1st truly complete (Telomere-to-Telomere (T2T) consortium)

SCIENTIFIC GOALS OF THE U.S. HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (7)

1.) Mapping and Sequencing the Human Genome 2.) Model organisms 3.) Informatics: Data collection and analysis 4.) Ethical, Legal, and Social Considerations 5.) Research training 6.) Technology Development 7.) Technology Transfer