Chapter 2 Flashcards
What is the primary purpose of a theory in research?
To organize and explain data and generate hypotheses that can be tested by research.
What are the two basic issues that developmental theories differ on?
The active or reactive character of development and the existence of continuity or discontinuity in development.
What are the two contrasting models of human development?
The mechanistic model and the organismic model.
True or False: The mechanistic model of development emphasizes active participation in growth.
False.
Fill in the blank: The _______ model of development focuses on the active role of the individual.
organismic
Fill in the blank: The _______ model of development views individuals as passive recipients of environmental stimuli.
mechanistic
What does the psychoanalytic perspective emphasize in development?
Motivation by unconscious emotional drives or conflicts
Leading examples include Freud’s and Erikson’s theories.
Which perspective views development as a result of learning based on experience?
Learning perspective
Leading examples are Watson’s and Skinner’s behaviorism and Bandura’s social learning (social cognitive) theory.
What is the focus of the cognitive perspective?
Thought processes
Leading examples include Piaget’s cognitive-stage theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, and the information-processing approach.
What does the contextual perspective concentrate on?
The individual in a social context
A leading example is Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory.
Which perspective emphasizes the adaptiveness or survival value of behavior?
Evolutionary/sociobiological perspective
It proposes that the mind has many cognitive adaptations designed to deal with recurrent adaptive problems.
Fill in the blank: The _______ perspective sees development as motivated by unconscious emotional drives or conflicts.
psychoanalytic
True or False: The learning perspective includes Bandura’s social learning theory.
True
What are the leading examples of the cognitive perspective?
- Piaget’s cognitive-stage theory
- Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
- Information-processing approach
Fill in the blank: Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory is an example of the _______ perspective.
contextual
True or False: The evolutionary/sociobiological perspective ignores the survival value of behavior.
False
What are the two main types of research methods?
Quantitative and qualitative.
What method do quantitative researchers use to arrive at sound conclusions?
The scientific method.
What ensures the generalizability of research findings?
Random selection of a research sample.
Name three forms of data collection in research.
- Self-reports
- Observation
- Behavioral and performance measures.
What is a research design?
A plan for conducting research.
What are two qualitative designs used in developmental research?
- Case study
- Ethnographic study.
What does cross-cultural research indicate?
Whether certain aspects of development are universal or culturally influenced.
What are two quantitative designs in research?
- Correlational study
- Experiment.
Which type of study can firmly establish causal relationships?
Experiments.
What must experiments be to ensure validity and replicability?
Rigorously controlled.
How can validity be ensured in experiments?
Random assignment of participants.
Which type of experiments are easiest to control and replicate?
Laboratory experiments.
What may be more generalizable, laboratory or field experiments?
Field experiments.
When are natural experiments useful?
In situations where true experiments would be impractical or unethical.
What are the two most common designs used to study age-related development?
- Cross-sectional
- Longitudinal.
What do cross-sectional studies assess?
Age differences.
What do longitudinal studies describe?
Continuity or change in the same participants.
What is the purpose of the sequential study?
To overcome the weaknesses of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.
What is a primary concern of psychologists in scientific research?
Incorporating diversity into scientific research
This concern reflects the need for a more inclusive understanding of psychological phenomena across different populations.
What does the open science movement advocate for?
Increased integrity, reproducibility, and accessibility of scientific work
Open science aims to make research findings more transparent and available to the public.
What ethical principles do researchers seek to resolve issues based on?
Beneficence, respect, and justice
These principles guide researchers in conducting ethical studies and protecting participants.
What is an important standard for the protection of children in research?
Parental informed consent and protection from harm
These standards ensure that children’s rights and well-being are prioritized in research settings.
Fill in the blank: The open science movement calls for increased _______ of scientific work.
integrity, reproducibility, and accessibility
True or False: The principles of justice in research only apply to adult participants.
False
The principles of justice apply to all research participants, including children.
What are naturalistic studies?
Observations conducted in natural settings without manipulation of variables.
Example: Observing children in a playground to understand social interactions.
What are standardized tests?
Tests administered and scored in a consistent manner to measure performance.
Example: SAT or ACT exams.
What is an experimental group?
A group that receives the treatment or intervention in an experiment.
What is a control group?
A group that does not receive the treatment, used for comparison.
What is qualitative change?
Changes that involve a transformation in the quality or nature of something.
What is quantitative change?
Changes that involve an increase or decrease in the amount or degree of something.
What are clinical studies?
Research investigations conducted with patients to assess the efficacy of interventions.
What is the cephalocaudal principle?
Development occurs from the head down to the feet.
What is the proximo-distal law?
Development progresses from the center of the body outward.
What is the scientific method?
A systematic approach to research involving observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and conclusion.
What are case studies?
In-depth analyses of individual or group cases to explore complex issues.
Define longitudinal studies.
Research that follows the same subjects over a long period.
Example: Studying the same group of children from birth to adulthood.
Define cross-sectional studies.
Research that compares different groups at a single point in time.
Example: Comparing the cognitive abilities of different age groups at one time.
Define cross-sequential studies.
Research that combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches by studying different age groups over time.
What ethical issues must be considered when studying children?
Informed consent, confidentiality, and minimizing potential harm.
Who is Erik Erikson and what is his theory?
A developmental psychologist known for his psychosocial stages of development.
Who is Sigmund Freud and what is his theory?
A psychoanalyst known for his theory of psychosexual development.
Who is Lawrence Kohlberg and what is his theory?
A psychologist known for his stages of moral development.
Who is Jean Piaget and what is his theory?
A developmental psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development.
Who are Watson and Skinner and what is their theory?
Behaviorists known for their work on classical and operant conditioning.
Who is Albert Bandura and what is his theory?
A psychologist known for his social learning theory, emphasizing observation and modeling.
Define normative age-graded influences.
Influences that are linked to age and are experienced by most individuals.
Example: Starting school at age 6.
Define normative history-graded influences.
Influences that occur at a specific time in history and impact a large number of people.
Example: The impact of the internet on communication.
Define non-normative life events.
Unique experiences that do not occur for most people.
Example: Winning the lottery or experiencing a natural disaster.
