Chapter 2 Flashcards
What do archaeologists study?
Remains of past cultures
one main concern of archaeology
study of artifacts
artifact
an object made by a human being that is portable
why are artifacts important
help answer key questions about the past
feature
artifacts that are humanly made and non-portable
Structures
buildings of all kinds
What are structure examples
houses, palaces and granaries
ecofacts
natural objects, that have survived from earlier cultures
ecofacts are not usually
substantially modified by humans
importance of ecofacts
reveals past human activities like what they ate
examples of ecofacts
animal bones, plant remains and sediments
sites
locations of past human activity, where archaeological material is found
what are sites associated with
artifacts and features
how long does a site have to be used
doesn’t matter. it could be years or hours.
tell
a site human occupied for a long timespan
what is important to do about reconstructing the past
understand the context of the find
context allows archaeologists to
built a wider and clear construction of the past
context
position of the find in space and time
assemblage
a group of artifacts consistently are found together that represent a past culture
sub-assemblage
groupings of artifacts based on behavior or use
what does context do
determine the function and significance of any artifact
what do finds have a relationship with
space and time with other finds
types of context
primary and secondary
primary context
The context of a find that has not been disturbed since its original deposition
secondary context
artifacts that have been redeposited or shifted from their original position
what can cause secondary context
forces of nature
what does moving a find do
destroys primary context and any important evidence
why/how does secondary context destroy primary context
if an object was moved from the original position
matrix
the surroundings of the find that touch it as it’s in the ground
association
the discovery of artifacts along with other remains in the same matrix
why is association important
it accurately records and identifies relations between remains found on sites
what is the issue with looters
digging up with no care for matrix, provenience or association loses contextual info
Provenience
An artifact’s horizontal and vertical location in the sediment or where an article came from (private supplier, a site…)
in situ
an artifact has not been moved from it’s original deposition or place
how to know if an artifact is in situ
the soil is when it’s been disturbed
formation processes
processes affecting how archaeological material came to be buried and their history
questions asked with formation processes
- How did archaeological materials go from being used in a living context to their current situation?
- How do archaeological materials get to be deposited in the way that they are?
- What did these processes do to the objects themselves?
formation process importance
deciding whether an object was disturbed when interpreting a find
types of formation processes
cultural and natural
cultural formation processes
accidental or deliberate activities done by humans before or after deposition
cultural processes examples
making and using artifacts
building and abandoning buildings
natural formation processes
natural events that govern both the burial and the survival of the archaeological record
natural formation process example
transport of stone tools by a river
What is the importance of different formation processes
the accurate reconstruction of past human activities.
Experimental Archaeology
the study of past behavioral processes through experimental reconstruction
Experimental Archaeology is informative about
formation processes that affects physical preservation of materials
kinds of cultural formation processes
- Those that reflect the original human behavior and activity before a site became buried
- Processes that came after the burial.
Why are the two divisions of cultural practice not always the easiest to apply in practice
major sites are formed through a complex order of use, burial and reuse.
Human behavior is reflected in four major activities
- How the raw materials were acquired
- Manufacture
- Use and distribution
- The disposal and discarding of worn out or broken tools.
most common or obvious cultural formation process
last stages of an object, its disposal, or its destruction.
most common cultural formation processes
- hoards
- Deliberate burial
- Human destruction
hoards
Deliberately buried groups of valuables or prized possessions
hoards are not always easy to distinguish between
those intended to be reclaimed and those left with no intention of reclaiming them.
Deliberate burial
purposeful deposit of items in the ground to reclaim these items later, though not all are
Deliberate burial is a major aspect of
original human behavior
Human destruction
purposeful or accidental destruction of the archeological record by humans (at any point in history)
Natural Formation Processes causes
decay or enables preservation
under normal conditions what survives better
inorganic materials survive much better than organic ones.
organic materials need what to survive
extreme temperatures
what is the best evidence for early human behaviors
stone tools
why are lithics such good evidence
can survive for every in soil
most common inorganic materials to survive
Stone, clay and metals
fired clay can make
materials are almost indestructible
ceramics have traditionally been
the main source of evidence.
metals that survive well
gold, silver and lead
why aren’t gold, silver and lead extracted often
they are expensive and often are reused and melted down
where can you find gold, silver and lead the most
in tombs
copper and some low-quality bronze leave
a green deposit/stain
how is it possible to retrieve the vanished items (metals)
a cast of the hollow space these metals left behind in the soil
the sea can cause metals to be
covered in a think layer of metallic salts that preserves the artifact
artifacts removed from water without treatment will
react with air and be destroyed
what leaves the metal artifact safe and clean after water excavation
Electrolysis
Organic materials are both
plant and animal remains
worked animal and plant materials (leather, textiles and food)
taphonomy
The study of how bones and other materials come to be buried in the earth and preserved as fossils.
survival of organic materials is based hugely on the
matrix of surrounding material and the climate.
survival of organic materials is best in conditions that are
inhabitable to most microorganisms that cause decay
Best survival environments for organic materials:
Those inhospitable to microorganisms
Those that are anaerobic
Those without water
Those of intense cold
Regions of high altitude
what climate is the most destructive to organic materials
tropical climate
why tropical climate is most destructive
- Roots can dislodge masonry and tear buildings apart
- Torrential downpours can destroy paint and plasterwork,
why are thick jungles good
prevent looters from damaging the sites
why temperate climates are also not beneficial
changing temperatures and changing precipitation levels accelerate decay.
what are natural conservatories
caves
caves can preserve
fragile artifacts such as bones and footprints if not disturbed
wetlands preserve organic materials by
sealing in a wet and anaerobic condition
what is important for preserving waterlogged artifacts
waterlogging must be more or less permanent up to the discovery and extraction or else it decomposes
John Coles
One of the pioneers of wet archaeology of Britain
John Coles estimates
75-90% to sometimes 100% of finds are organic in waterlogged archaeology
why are people beginning to focus more on wet sites.
Little to none of the material would survive on dryland sites.
what are some of the most important environments for wetland archaeology
peat bogs
what are some of the most well known finds in peat bogs
bog bodies
bog bodies
human cadaver that has been naturally mummified in a peat bog
bog bodies preservation depends mainly on
quality of conditions the bodies were deposited.
describe what a bog body might look like
the skin is still there but bones are often gone as with most of the internal organs.
can stomach contents survive in bog bodies
yes
what is the Greatest contribution to archaeology for wetland sites
Timber for the study of tree-rings
Major issues with wet archaeology
- finds deteriorate very quickly when uncovered
- have to be kept wet until they are ready to be treated
- wet archaeology cost more
rewards of wet archaeology
yielded the largest number of prehistoric watercrafts from any one region
dry environments importance
prevents decay
how does dry environments prevents decay
shortage of water, microorganisms are unable to thrive.
Are the pueblo people’s mummies actually mummies
no. it was all natural.
benefit of cold environments
hold the processes of decay in check for thousands of years
long-term experimental archaeology
test archaeological hypotheses by replicating processes of the past.
ozette site
Place where a mudslide caped an entire village and preserved it. During excavation, houses were found intact.
most spectacular find at Ozette
block of red cedar a meter high and carved in the form of a whale’s dorsal fin
what was found at must farm
Part of a Bronze Age settlement
importance of must farm
- best-preserved Bronze Age dwellings ever found
- everything was being used up till the fire
why was must farm abandoned
a catastrophic fire.
King Tut’s tomb importance
one of the only ancient tombs to be found nearly intact
why does Egypt preserve materials so well
the Arid conditions
what was discovered in the 1950s on the Andes mountains
frozen bodies
why did the Incas built ceremonial centers on the highest peaks
worshiping the snow-capped mountains
The Incas believed that the mountains controlled ______________.
fertility of crops and animals by provided the water for irrigating fields
the Inca offered to their gods (most notably)
human sacrifices
Johan Reinhard
American archaeologist who carried out expeditions to the high peaks in the Andes
what did Johan Reinhard find
best preserved ancient bodies ever found
The Ampato Volcano of the Andes’ (6312 meters) yielded
Inca girl (Ice Maiden)
Ice Maiden
Ice maiden
girl ritually sacrificed at the age of 14.
The peak of Llullaillaco in 1999 yielded
a seven year old boy and two girls
what was amazing about bodies found in Andes’
so perfect preserved that a detailed analysis can be done on their internal organs, DNA and hair.
Snow-Patched Archaeology importance
objects lost or discarded by human visitors are often well preserved
Oldest known snow-patch artifact from Scandinavia
dated between 8000 and 4000 BCE
Snow-Patched Archaeology near Oppdal Norway in 2010/2011
5 Neolithic arrows and a Neolithic bow
Importance of the finds at Oppdal
insight into how Neolithic people joined stone arrowheads to wooden shafts
Snow-Patched Archaeology in Norway
A well preserved tunic was found in 2011
what is the concern about Norway
ancient ice melting will soon be gone, and all these finds with it.
what do the repeated snow-patched archaeology finds show
rising temps and changing climates taking place in these climates.
the iceman
a body which was found in the Alps; this body turned out to be about 5,300 years old
when was the iceman found
1991
The Iceman importance
1st prehistoric human every found with it’s everyday clothing and equipment, going about his everyday life
what caused iceman death
He probably died from a blow to the head either from being struck or falling.
What Did the Iceman’s teeth show
lived within 60 km of where he died
How was the Iceman preserved
the body was in a depression, it was protected from the movement of the glacier above
how was iceman found
a layer of dust from a storm fell on the ice and it absorbed sunlight that thawed the ice
