Chapter 19 Shit

Question 1

What is speed?

Answer 1

-The skills and abilities needed to achieve high movement velocities
-Reflected by the ability to accelerate and reach maximal velocity

Question 2

What is change of direction?

Answer 2

The skills and abilities needed to explosively change movement directions, velocities, or modes

Question 3

What is agility?

Answer 3

The skills and abilities needed to changed direction, velocity, or mode in response to a stimulus

Question 4

What are the 2 primary variables for speed and agility that describe force relative to time available for force production?

Answer 4

-Rate of force development (RFD)
+The development of maximal force in minimal time, typically used as an index of explosive strength
-Impulse
+The product of the generated force and time required for its production - which is measured as the area under the force-time curve
Dictates the magnitude of change of momentum of an object

Question 5

What are the physics of sprinting, COD, and agility?

Answer 5

-Force represents the interaction of two physical objects
+Force is a vector quantity - meaning it has both a size and direction
+Typically described as a “push” or “pull” exerted on one object by another
++Prevents both objects from occupying the same space
+The movement of mass changes an object’s velocity - causing acceleration
-Velocity and speed are often used interchangeably but are not the same thing
+Speed - a scalar quantity that only describes how fast an object is moving
++The rate at which an object covers a distance
+Velocity - vector quantity that describes how fast an object is traveling and its direction
++Velocity = speed in a certain direction
-Acceleration - the rate at which an object’s velocity changes over time
+Once force acts upon a physical object, the mass will change direction and leave the space it was occupying
+Acceleration will continue as long as external forces continue to change velocity
++Negative acceleration is typically called deceleration in practical contexts describing a change from higher to lower velocity

Question 6

What is impulse?

Answer 6

-For an object to change location, forces must be applied to produce a change in velocity
-Forces are never applied instantaneously by athletes
+Force is applied to the running surface over a period of time in the stance phase of sprinting or the plant phase of change of direction
+The length of time athletes are in the stance or plant phase is the ground contact time
-Impulse is the product of the time the force is applied to the ground and the amount of force applied
+Graphically represented as the area under the force-time curve
+Changes in impulse result in changes in momentum and are reflected by the ability to accelerate and decelerate
+Vertical and horizontal forces differ in magnitude between the acceleration phase and the maximal velocity phase

Question 7

What are the two phases of impulse?

Answer 7

-Braking phase - negative horizontal force
-Propulsive phase - positive horizontal force

Question 8

What is impulse doing during maximal velocity?

Answer 8

-Asymmetrical production of force and RFD is very high
-Results in much shorter ground contact times in comparison to acceleration phase

Question 9

What is momentum?

Answer 9

-the relationship between the mass of an object and the velocity of movement
-During a sprint, body mass remains constant
+Only way to increase impulse given the same timeframe is to increase force
+Greater impulse results in increased or decreased momentum
++Depends on whether athlete is accelerating, reaccelerate, or decelerate before a change of direction
-The magnitude of force coupled with the length of time the force is produced during each step is the most important factor for success
-Changes in these forces increase or decrease the athlete’s momentum
+Therefore, training should focus on impulse in addition to RFD
+Power has not been discussed here because it is derived from force and velocity
++Power is considered a mechanical construct - not an indicator of maximal explosive performance
+++Unclear if power is the result of force or of velocity

Question 10

What is RFD?

Answer 10

-Rate of force development
-Most competitive scenarios do not occur within a timeframe that allows an athlete to generate maximal forces
+Maximal contraction requires at least 300ms
+Most sports activities consume 0-200ms
+Rate of force development more useful measure of explosive ability when success depends on the timing of movement
++RFD can be described as the change in force divided by the change in time

Question 11

What is RFD’s implications for speed?

Answer 11

-To accelerate, athletes must produce force sufficient to overcome the effects of gravity and create positive change in velocity
-Within a short sprint - force is the effort needed to accelerate an athlete up to the highest achievable speed - largely determined by physiological factors
-Rate of force production is the biggest factor for sprinting success due to limited timeframes for maximal force production during sprinting

Question 12

What is RFD’s practical implications for COD and agility?

Answer 12

-Braking impulse must be considered for change-of-direction and agility maneuvers
-Impulse required to change momentum effectively and efficiently is a direct reflection of the physical requirements for change of direction
-As the angle of direction change increases, so does the impulse required to change momentum
+Physically more demanding to change directions at greater angles
-Time constraints placed on the performer due to perceptual-cognitive aspects of agility can influence the physical demands
+Limits the time available to produce required force for change of direction in response to a stimulus

Question 13

How is the nervous system (NS) important in sprinting?

Answer 13

-Activity of NS vital to sprint performance
+NS ultimately influences the rate and strength of muscle contraction
-Combination of strength, plyometric, and sprint training produces adaptations in NS that contributed to improved sprint performance
+Strength training
++Enhances neural drive - the rate and amplitude of impulses from NS to target muscles
+++Indicates increased action potentials
+++Related to increase in both force production and rate of force production
+Plyometric training
++Demonstrates increases in excitability of high-threshold motor neurons
+++Ultimately enhances neural drive
+Increased neural drive may contribute to increases in RFD and impulse

Question 14

What is the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC)?

Answer 14

-SSC occurs during movements with rapid transition from eccentric to concentric action
-SSC very prevalent in sports with running, jumping, and other explosive changes in velocity
-SSC performance is independent of maximal strength in elite athletes
-SSC actions exploit:
+Intrinsic muscle-tendon behavior
+Force-length reflex feedback to nervous system
+Acute SSC actions increase mechanical efficiency and impulse via elastic energy recovery
+Chronic SSC upregulates muscle stiffness and enhances neuromuscular activation

Question 15

What criteria should be followed for training the SSC?

Answer 15

-Involve skillful, multi joint movements that transmit forces through the kinetic chain and exploit elastic-reflexive mechanisms
-Should be structured around brief work bouts separated by frequent rest-pauses to manage fatigue and work quality
-Complex training can achieve this goal
+Alternates SSC tasks with heavy resistance exercises in the same session to enhance effect
++Based on post activation potentiation effects
+Popular for enhancing advanced athletes performance
++May be inappropriate for novices or youths

Question 16

What is the spring-mass model (SMM)

Answer 16

-Exposure to strength and speed training linked to a rise in the preactivation of musculature used in sprinting
-Onset of pre-tension related to an increase in the sensitivity of associated muscle spindles
+Improvement in muscle-spindle feedback results in greater tendon stiffness and compliance

Question 17

How does SMM provide support for the SSC?

Answer 17

-SMM models sprinting as a type of human locomotion in which displacement of body mass is the aftereffect from energy produced and delivered through the collective coiling and extension of spring-like actions in muscle architecture
+Complete cycle:
++One spring (leg and hip) compresses and propels the body forward
++The other spring swings forward in preparation for ground contact
++In upright sprinting:
+++Compression begins at foot strike - results in horizontal braking forces that assist in propelling the swing leg forward
+++As center of mass moves ahead of the foot - sprinter is in midstance
+++Spring then compressed to the lowest point - coincides with lowered center of mass at midstance
+++Push-off segment returns energy through extension of the spring - propels the sprinter forward

Question 18

Why is SMM not as applicable to elite sprinters as it is novice sprinters?

Answer 18

-Elite sprinters deviate from SMM model during maximal velocity
-Most vertical force produced during first half of ground contact
-Nonelite sprinters - vertical force is more symmetrical across ground-contact period
-SMM best used to describe the relationship between SSC. muscle stiffness, and sprinting
-As stride frequency increases, muscle stiffness becomes an important feature in the leg spring
-Training should emphasize neural drive and overload of musculature of the hip and knee regions involved in the SSC

Question 19

What are neurophysical considerations for change of direction and agility?

Answer 19

-Time of plant phase of agility (0.23-0.25s) and COD (0.44-0.722s) exceeds typical ground contact time of sprint acceleration (0.17-0.2s) and maximal velocity (.09-0.11s)
-Braking is important for agility performance
+Neuromuscular development for high velocity and high-force eccentric contractions should be considered
++Adaptations called upon during eccentric contraction are different than those of concentric contractions
++Eccentric adaptations are specific to the velocity of loading
++Agility training requires additional knowledge of perceptual-cognitive demands above the neurophysiological requirements for COD

Question 20

What is sprinting?

Answer 20

-A series of coupled flight and support phases orchestrated in an attempt to displace the athletes body down the track at maximal acceleration or velocity, usually over brief distances and durations
+Typically described as maximal effort running of 15 seconds or less
+Classic definition of sprint speed focuses on relationship between stride length and stride frequency
++Sprint speed can be increased by increasing stride length or stride frequency
++Underlying component to maximizing strides is rate of force development

Question 21

How does RFD, stride rate, and stride length differ in elite and nonelite sprinters?

Answer 21

-Differences in elite and novice sprinters is primarily linked to the amount of vertical force applied to the ground during the stance phase
+Greater forces must be applied to the ground in shortest time possible (RFD)
+Application of force is needed to displace mass - represented by stride length
++Elite sprinters have a typical stride of 2.7m
++Novice sprinters stride closer to 2.56m
+Contact with the ground is needed to continue force production and subsequent alterations in velocity
++Increased stride rate theoretically maximizes time available to produce force
++Elite male sprinters have stride rates near 4.63 steps/second
++Novice sprinters - 4.43 steps/second
++Faster sprinters spend more time in the air due to more frequent stride rates
++Reposition time for swing leg similar in elite and novice sprinters
++Elite male sprinters propel themselves further with each stride due to properly directed vertical forces
++Suggested that optimized knee height at maximal flexion of recovering leg are responsible for proper force direction
+++May explain why elite sprinters display most force during the first half of ground contact
+++Continuous application of high force in short stance phase results in longer strides occurring at a higher rate
++++Elite sprinters reach velocity near 12.55m/s
++++Novices limited to 11.25m/s
Force production is the limiting factor - but technical efficiency and training also play role in maximal speed

Question 22

What should sprint technique be for the start?

Answer 22

-Distributed bodyweight through 3 or 4-point staggered start with segment angles critical for forces necessary to deliver an explosive start
+Front lower leg angle ~90 degrees in elite male sprinters
+Rear lower leg angle ~133 degrees in elite male sprinters
-Aggressive extension with both legs
+Goal to generate high horizontal velocities through maximal exertion against the blocks or grounds
+Start clearing lasts ~0.28 seconds and legs combine to produce ~905N of force
+To overcome static start position, sprinter must rely on the production of vertical forces to support the body weight in addition to moving center of gravity upward to running position
+Vertical velocity is greater during block clearance and subsequent 2 steps to raise body center of gravity

Question 23

What should sprint technique be for the acceleration phase?

Answer 23

-During initial steps, recovery of swing legs should be low to the ground - toes should be barely off the ground
-During the second step of acceleration:
+Elite sprinters have a stride rate of 5.26 steps/second during the second step of acceleration and stride of 1.13 to 1.15m
+Novice sprinters - 3.45 steps/second during second step and stride length of 1.21-1.50m
++Shorter initial stride rate in elite sprinters represents need for less flight time to maximize horizontal acceleration through frequent ground contact
+Elite sprinters average contact times of ~0.123 seconds
+Novice - 0.223 seconds
+By ~20m body’s center of gravity will rise to nearly upright - head in relaxed, neutral position and will rise at the same rate as the torso

Question 24

What is sprint technique for the maximal velocity phase?

Answer 24

-Stacked joints with shoulders sitting directly above hips, which sit above foot during stance phase
-Head in relaxed, neutral position with eyes focused directly ahead
-Shoulders stay down and relaxed to allow arms to move at the same rate as teh legs cycle through stance and swing
+Elite male sprinters
++~12.55 m/s max horizontal velocity
++~4.63 steps/second
++~2.7m max stride length
++~0.087 second ground contact time
+Novice sprinters
++~11.25 m/s maximal horizontal velocity
++~4.63 steps/second
++~2.56m max stride length
++~0.101 second ground contact time

Question 25

What is max velocity sprint technique during early, mid, and late flight?

Answer 25

-Early flight +Eccentric hip flexion - decelerates backward rotation of the thigh +Eccentric knee extension - decelerates backward rotation of the leg/foot -Mid Flight +Concentric hip flexion - accelerates thigh forward +Eccentric knee extension transitions to eccentric knee flexion -Late flight +Concentric hip extension: ++Rotates thigh backward in preparation for foot contact +Eccentric knee flexion ++Accelerates leg backward, limits knees extension; stops before foot strike (aided by concentric knee flexion to minimize braking at touchdown)

Question 26

What is max velocity sprint technique during early support and late support?

Answer 26

-Early support +Continued concentric hip extension: minimizes breaking effect of foot strike +Brief concentric knee flexion followed by hip extension ++Resists tendency of hip/ankle extension to hyperextend knee, absorbs landing shock +Eccentric plantarflexion ++Helps absorb shock and control forward rotation of tibia over ankle -Late support +Eccentric hip flexion: ++Decelerates backward thigh rotation, rotates trunk in preparation for forward takeoff +Concentric knee extension ++Propels center of gravity forward +Concentric plantarflexion: ++Aids in propulsion

Question 27

What should the overarching goal for sprint training be?

Answer 27

-Overarching goal - achieve optimal stride length and stride frequency through correct application of force into the ground +Transmission of high forces must occur in a short stance phase +During acceleration, propulsive forces assist in elevating the hips above the ground until speed is no longer increasing at large rates +At maximal velocity, SZSC is used to properly displace athletes center of mass horizontally

Question 28

What should fundamental training objectives for sprint training be?

Answer 28

-Emphasize brief ground support times to achieve rapid stride rate +Developed through exposure to speed training and properly designed strength training -Emphasize further development of SSC as a means to increase the amplitude of impulse for each step of the sprint +High level sprinters produce more force in shorter contact times +Olympic lifts and derivatives are key for overloading the SSC with greater forces than those found in an open sprint

Question 29

What's the difference between COD and agility and what are the similarities in ground contact time?

Answer 29

-Agility requires additional consideration of perceptual cognitive ability -COD and agility movements at shallow angles (less than 75 degrees) have ground contact above 250ms due to greater braking requirements +Emphasis required on eccentric and maximal strength alongside concentric explosiveness required for reacceleration +Different methods of changing direction of the same angle affects ground reaction force and contact time ++I.e. single-leg COD vs jump turn ++Technique chosen with dictate demands ++Specific adaptations require specific instruction

Question 30

what should be considered when testing agility?

Answer 30

-Tests without a reactive component should be considered “change of direction tests” as opposed to “agility tests” -Tests called “agility tests” may assess something other than COD or cognitive-perception +I.e. improvements on the “illinois test” can be a result of improved metabolic capacity as opposed to agility due to the length of the test -Different tests for agility - i.e. 505- L-run, have a moderate relationship in the same athlete +Suggests that the tests are not assessing the exact same COD/agility ability +Can be due to different physical requirements associated with lesser and greater angles of direction change in addition to different metabolic demands

Question 31

What improves COD ability?

Answer 31

-Increased hip extension velocity -Low center of mass height -Increased braking and propulsive impulse -Increased knee flexion when entering COD -Minimized trunk angular displacement when entering COD -Increased lateral trunk tilt during 180 degree changes -Recommended that athletes train to adapt NMs for loading during braking +Emphasis on eccentric deceleration ++Load drop landings, catch phase of power clean/snatch

Question 32

If COD ability is present what should an athlete focus on to improve agility?

Answer 32

-Perceptual cognitive (PC) ability: +With physical COD ability present, athlete can focus on perceptual-cognitive aspect to bring together the ability to perform both physically and mentally on field of play +Encompassed in several skills ++Visual scanning ++Anticipation ++Pattern recognition ++Knowledge of situation ++Decision making time ++Accuracy ++Reaction time +Many aspects of PC are sport-specific and cannot be encompassed in a generic agility program

Question 33

What should an athlete do to maintain visual focus for a agile response?

Answer 33

-When changing direction in response to an opponent, athlete should focus on shoulders, trunk, and hip -Following the anticipation of the event, unless deception is intended, athlete should quickly redirect attention to a new area to help lead the transition of the body

Question 34

What should the body position be during braking and reacceleration?

Answer 34

-Control the trunk leading into the deceleration (decrease excess trunk motion) -Through the stance phase, reorient the trunk and hips toward the direction of intended travel to allow for a more effective reacceleration -Body lean is paramount in allowing proper force application through the ground with strong alignment of ankle, knee, and hip through to the trunk and shoulders -Enter and exit changes of direction with a lower center of mass -When side-shuffling with change of direction, maintaining low center of mass is critical

Question 35

What should leg action be for braking and reacceleration?

Answer 35

-Ensure that the athlete can effectively dissipate or tolerate braking loads through an effective ROM at the knee +Avoid stiff-legged braking style -Emphasize “pushing the ground away” in order to enhance performance - especially when learning in closed drills +External focus of attention - i.e. through instructions to focus on the ground instead of a body part, has been shown to improve change of direction performance

Question 36

What should arm action be for braking and reacceleration?

Answer 36

-Powerful arm actions should be used to facilitate leg drive -Ensure that the action of the arms is not counterproductive +I.e. does not cause decrease in speed or efficiency +Especially important during difficult COD transitions ++I.e. backpedal to sprint

Question 37

What are does sprinting do to the neurological system?

Answer 37

Maximal velocity sprinting aids in increasing neurological adaptations from long term training plans that emphasize maximal strength and movement velocity improve both RFD and impulse generation

Question 38

How is SSC used in max velocity spriting?

Answer 38

-Chronic exposure to SSC training increases muscle stiffness which provides an advantage for sprint ability -Chronic maximal muscle activation from sprinting can increase musculoskeletal control +Neuromuscular adaptations from previous practices will bolster subsequent training

Question 39

How can you use assisted sprinting (overspeed training) to improve speed?

Answer 39

-Use of towing, downhill running, etc. to train athlete at supramaximal speeds +Not be recommended in general - can result in excessive braking and exposure to excess eccentric forces +Little research supporting use for speed increases

Question 40

How can you use resisted sprinting to increase speed?

Answer 40

-Accentuates biomechanics of acceleration by promoting optimal torso, shin, and hip angle for acceleration -Improves ability to rapidly cover short distances -Loads should mimic sporting context +For sprint - loads should not reduce maximum speed by more than 10%-12% +Field athletes who overcome blocking, tackling, or scrimmaging can use 20%-30% bodyweight to improve initial movement +Excessive loads may increase ground contact times beyond the point of transferring maximal

Question 41

How should resistance training be used to increase sprint speed?

Answer 41

-Sprint speed is underpinned by the ability to produce large forces in a brief period of time -Weight-training should be specific to sprinting in terms of movement patterns, peak force, RFD, acceleration, and velocity -Weightlifting derivatives such as the clean, snatch, and midthigh pull may enhance sprint performance through physiological adaptations such as muscle stiffness, enhanced RFD, and coactivation of hip and knee musculature

Question 42

How does mobility affect sprint speed?

Answer 42

-Use of methods such as stretching, chiropractic care, massage, and myofascial release can improve the ability to move a limb through the desired ROM -Insufficient mobility in midflight position can cause misplaced forces - increasing injury risk and reducing performance

Question 43

What should your goals be when training agility?

Answer 43

-Enhanced perceptual-cognitive ability in situations and tactical scenarios -Effective and rapid braking of momentum -Rapid reacceleration toward new direction of travel -Emphasize the following +Direction visual focus toward the opponent’s shoulders, trunk, and hip to increase perceptual ability to anticipate opponent’s defensive or offensive movement +Orient the body into a position that allows for effective application of forces into the ground to maximize braking capacity ++Increase the speed from which one can rapidly stop ++Increase the ability to brake from relevant directions of movement (i.e. forward, backward, lateral movement) +Ability to maintain a good position after braking, reorient into a position that faces the new direction, and effectively use acceleration mechanics to reaccelerate

Question 44

How does one develop agility by focusing on strength?

Answer 44

-Strength development for agility should emphasize relative strength and speed-strength qualities along the force-velocity spectrum -Additional eccentric strength development should also be considered

Question 45

How does change of direction training affect agility?

Answer 45

-Closed skill COD drills progressing from beginner to advanced -Improving COD will improve the COD section of agility testing

Question 46

How does one develop perceptual-cognitive ability to improve agility?

Answer 46

-Skills training over the years enhances the visual scanning, pattern recognition, and situational knowledge -Drills outside of practice can focus on improving anticipation, decision making time, and accuracy -Begin by adding perceptual-cognitive component to closed skill COD drills

Question 47

What are examples of dynamic training exercises to improve speed and agility?

Answer 47

-Dynamic strength - provides base strength and ensures mobility +Body weight exercises (novice athletes) +Body awareness work (novice) ++“Leaning drills” +Squat/pulls and variations (advanced) +COD drills (advanced)

Question 48

What are examples of concentric explosive strength exercises for speed and agility and why are they needed?

Answer 48

- needed for effective reacceleration after braking -Box jumps (novice) -Acceleration drills (novice) -Loaded squat jumps, olympic lifts (advanced) -Advanced acceleration drills (e.g. sled push)

Question 49

What are examples of eccentric strength exercises for speed and agility and why are they needed?

Answer 49

- needed for absorbing loads during braking -Drop landing (novice) -Forward deceleration drills (novice) -Drop landings, olympic lifts with catch (advanced) -High velocity/angular deceleration drills (advanced)

Question 50

What are examples of reactive strength exercises to improve speed and agility and why are they needed?

Answer 50

- needed for transferring eccentric load to concentric explosiveness -Beginner plyometrics (novice) -Loaded jumps, drop jumps, complex training (advanced) -Advanced plyometrics (advanced)

Question 51

What are examples of multidirectional strength exercises to improve speed and agility and why are they needed?

Answer 51

- needed for holding body position during various movement demands -Lunges (beginner) -Low-velocity COD -Unilateral lifts/greater degree of freedom lifts -High Velocity COD, challenging angle-cut COD

Question 52

How does one improve perceptual-cognitive abilities and why are they needed?

Answer 52

- needed for visual scanning, effective anticipation, and decision making -Simple reaction drills -Small-side games, restricted agility drills

Question 53

What are the three levels of periodization (think timing) and what length of time do they encompass?

Answer 53

-Requires periodization planning at several levels -Microcycles - short term (i.e. weekly) -Mesocycles - medium term (i.e. monthly) -Macrocycles - long term (i.e. yearly)

Question 54

What are the variables to manipulate for an athlete's workout?

Answer 54

-Exercise interval - the duration or distance over which a repetition is executed -Exercise order - the sequence in which a set of reps is executed -Frequency - the number of training sessions in a given time period -Intensity - effort in which a repetition is executed (%1rm) -Recovery interval - the time period between repetitions and sets -Repetition - the execution of a specific workload assignment or movement technique -Series - a group of sets and recovery intervals -Set - a group of reps and rest intervals -Volume - the amount of work performed in a given session -Work-to-rest ratio - relative density of exercise and rest in a set -Volume load - density of volume performed at prescribed intensities

Question 55

What are strategies for developing speed?

Answer 55

-Speed training should be periodized in a manner that addresses the physical and psychological components of sprinting -Requires emphasis and de-emphasis on particular qualities in a phasic manner -Periods should be aimed at maximizing and saturating a given fitness quality -Speed enhancement must consider the relationship between human locomotion and force production +Examine link between sprint success and physiological phenomena (i.e. characteristics of elite sprinters) ++Large amounts of force needed in short time (RFD) +++Results in longer stride lengths at faster rate ++Reflection of enhanced maximal strength, RFD, and impulse +++Product of training protocols that enhance: ++++Hypertrophy of task-specific motor units ++++Firing frequency ++++Rate coding ++++Muscle-tendon stiffness -Programs are initially aimed at increasing acceleration before training maximal velocity - “short to long method”

Question 56

What would block 1 of phasic development from a short distance sprinter look like?

Answer 56

-Block 1 +Aim ++Acceleration development +Tools ++Incline sprinting +Emphasize ++Low heel recovery, driving foot down and through the ground, aggressive and complete arm action, neutral head position

Question 57

What would block 2 of phasic development from a short distance sprinter look like?

Answer 57

-Block 2 +Aim ++Long acceleration development Improve transition to upright sprinting ++Exposure to speed endurance +Tools ++Steadily remove athlete from incline by introducing flat ground sprinting form low start or towing mechanism

Question 58

What would block 3 of phasic development from a short distance sprinter look like?

Answer 58

-Block 3 +Aim ++Introduction to max speed training ++Maintain accelerative ability ++Continued exposure to speed endurance ++Introduction to special endurance +Tools ++Maintain acceleration with short sprints ++Exposure to max speed with upright sprint mechanics ++Prescribe speed endurance or special endurance later in the week when fatigue may dampen neural drive

Question 59

What would block 4 of phasic development from a short distance sprinter look like?

Answer 59

-Block 4 +Aim ++Enhance max speed ++Maintain acceleration ability ++Continued exposure to speed endurance and special endurance +Tools ++Continue exposure to max speed training through longer fly-in zones or race-modeling ++Include short sprints for acceleration at the beginning of almost every session ++Prescribe speed endurance or special endurance sessions relevant to athlete’s primary events

Question 60

How can one monitor sprint ability and what should be looked at?

Answer 60

-High-Speed camera systems are the best way to monitor and evaluate sprint ability -Analysis of footage can be used to assess the following: +Ground contact time +Step length +Stride length +Flight time +Stride Angle +Speed +Acceleration

Question 61

What is ground contact time?

Answer 61

-Total time allotted for a single stance phase -Decreased ground contact time alongside faster sprint time suggests athlete has increased force production capability -Athlete may display longer ground contact during acceleration

Question 62

What is step length?

Answer 62

-The distance between the toe of one foot and heel of the other in two consecutive steps -Increased step length can occur through improved mechanics or posture and enhanced force output

Question 63

What is stride length?

Answer 63

-Distance between the heel in two consecutive steps of the same foot -Improvements in stride length may occur through improved mechanics, posture, and enhanced force output

Question 64

What is flight time?

Answer 64

-Duration of time athlete is not in contact with the ground -Interpreted in two ways +Athlete is producing higher vertical forces over shorter amount of time - resulting in proper displacement of athlete’s mass down the track +Athlete produces higher vertical forces over longer amount of time - may result in unnecessary vertical amplitude of center of mass

Question 65

What is stride angle?

Answer 65

-The angle at which the foot leaves the track -Provides coach with an ability to determine if athlete is producing force at the right moment as well as the current stage of the sprint

Question 66

What is speed?

Answer 66

-The relationship between steps and the sum of the first step’s ground contact time and the flight time leading to the subsequent ground contact -Dictates how fast an athlete can move the body mass over a specific distance

Question 67

What is acceleration?

Answer 67

-The change in speed as determined by the delta of two steps and sum of ground contact times and flight times of each step -Provides insight into how well the athlete changes speed over a prescribed distance

Question 68

What are agility development strategies?

Answer 68

-Agility development requires periodized programming +Begins with developing COD with pre planned route COD drills +Athletes progress to perceptual-cognitive drills involving COD in response to a specific stimulus

Question 69

What would block 1 of phasic development for agility look like?

Answer 69

-Aim +COD linear deceleration capacity +Maneuverability -Tools +Braking tasks with eccentric focus - low volumes +Focus on athlete staying low - may sacrifice speed for positioning

Question 70

What would block 2 of phasic development for agility look like?

Answer 70

-Aim +COD lateral deceleration capacity +Maneuverability between modes - COD to shuffle to sprint to shuffle -Tools +Ensure athlete uses body position to effectively brake laterally and forward +Focus on absorbing stop - expand to single effort in response to generic stimulus +Promote effective application of force into the ground ++Cue “pushing the ground away”

Question 71

What would block 3 of phasic development for agility look like?

Answer 71

-Aim +COD deceleration to reacceleration +Maneuverability - effective transition and body positioning +Agility - keep COD performance and body position in response to generic stimulus -Tools +Focus on “braking in” and “exploding out” of COD +Focus on footwork and keeping low ++Steps should “drop and drive” out of COD +Check “transfer” of physical training to more specific generic stimulus ++Focus on “decide and go” - check athletes to reorient effectively or “move as they decide”

Question 72

How should one monitor agility and COD ability?

Answer 72

-Time taken to completion of drills does not isolate the physical quality or perceptual-cognitive quality that one is trying to examine -High speed cameras can be used to monitor factors of agility development

Question 73

What are Measures of agility and COD ability?

Answer 73

-Change of direction deficit -Ground-contact time -Exit Velocity -Entry Velocity -Decision-making time

Question 74

What is the change of direction deficit?

Answer 74

-The time difference between a straight-line sprint and a COD test of equal length -Assessing COD deficit provides insight into the time demands of COD +I.e. subtract 5-0-5 COD drill time from 10m sprint time to determine COD deficit - any added time is due to COD demand

Question 75

What is ground-contact time in relation to agility?

Answer 75

-Total time foot is in contact with the ground during COD -Can determine if athlete is effectively improving actual COD independent of total time required to complete a COD test -Improvements in straight-line sprinting may improve COD test time without an actual improvement in COD ability

Question 76

What is exit velocity?

Answer 76

-Horizontal velocity of the athlete during the initial step out of the plant of the change of direction -Considering the first step of reacceleration from toe-off of the plant foot to foot strike of the subsequent step -Unlike measuring total time - high-speed video can assess the velocity and give a direct measure of the ability to change direction -Improve exit velocity in conjunction with the same or faster ground contact times implies greater rate of force development relevant to improving COD ability

Question 77

What is entry velocity?

Answer 77

-Velocity of the athlete before the plant phase -Can be measured over several steps or as the last step in entering the plant phase of the change of direction -Practitioners can use similar methods to assess entry velocity as suggested for exit velocity -Allows coach to understand the demand of the change of direction that should be considered when tracking exit velocity

Question 78

What is decision-making time?

Answer 78

-Measurement of the time between two events -Can be positive or negative -Can be broken down into two orientations to assess defensive movement (same direction as stimulus) and offensive movement (opposite direction as stimulus)

Question 79

What is an A-skip?

Answer 79

Used to stimulate upright sprinting mechanics and vertical force production

Question 80

What is the start position for the a-skip?

Answer 80

Begin in a tall stance with torso directly above hips, knees, and ankles

Question 81

What is the movement phase for the a-skip?

Answer 81

-Initiate movement by lifting one leg to a bent knee positions with top of the thigh near parallel -Foot of lifted leg should be approximately at knee height of the stance leg with heel pulled under the buttocks -Begin first skip by aggressively driving the swing leg down to the ground through an active foot, established through slight dorsiflexion +“Lift the big toe up” to establish appropriate dorsiflexion -Complete the aggressive drive down of the swing leg through the forefoot until the triple extension of new stance leg occurs -Fore-to-midfoot of new stance leg should land under the hips, maintaining the stacked joints appearance -At initiation of contact, opposing leg should pop up rapidly to create a swing leg -Force generated from the active push down should coincide with a skipping motion that will result in horizontal displacement of the body down the track

Question 82

What are technique tips for a A-skip?

Answer 82

-Maintain a tall posture with relaxed shoulders through the entire duration -The arms should move at the same rate as the legs, with minimal to no pausing of the arm action between cycles

Question 83

What is a deceleration drill?

Answer 83

Used to improve braking ability and assist in transferring eccentric strength training to movement specific patterns

Question 84

What is the movement phase of the deceleration drill?

Answer 84

-Depending on physical and technical competence of the athlete, run forward at half-speed and then decelerate and stop within three steps -If athlete effectively absorbs the load by third step, increase running speed to ¾ speed, and decelerate within 5 steps -Most advanced - achieve top speed and decelerate in 7 steps -Most demanding braking step occurs one or more steps before stopping

Question 85

What are technique tips for a deceleration drill?

Answer 85

-Variations of this drill can be used during lateral movement and backward running +Intermediate drill would require 5-15 yard acceleration and come to complete stop while facing perpendicular to the original direction of running

Question 86

What is the start position for the y shaped agility drill?

Answer 86

Start at a cone 10 yards away from person who will act as the stimulus director

Question 87

What is the movement phase of the Y shaped agility drill?

Answer 87

-Run toward the stimulus and change direction based on the direction the stimulus points or audible signal stimulus provides -Director should point left or right when athlete reaches the 5 yard line -Athlete should plant and change direction as soon as possible and accelerate towards cones placed at an angle of 45 degrees and a distance of 3 yards to the left and right of the stimulus

Question 88

What are technique tips for the Y shaped agility drill?

Answer 88

-Variations of this drill to adapt for more specific stimuli +Have athlete move in direction opposite the stimulus - i.e. offensive movement +Have stimulus direction take a single step or double step in either direction instead of pointing to cue the athlete to respond offensively or defensively +Have the stimulus pass an implement relevant to the sport to either of two teammates standing on the right and left of the stimulus