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BIOL 1191 > Chapter 18: Lecture Midterm II > Flashcards

Chapter 18: Lecture Midterm II Flashcards

1
Q

What two systems act together to coordinate all systems of the body

A

endocrine and nervous system

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2
Q

The nervous system releases —- whereas the endocrine system releases —-

A

neurotransmitters, hormones

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3
Q

hormones and neurotransmitters bind to receptors on

A

target cells

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4
Q

Which systems responses are slower than the other; nervous or endocrine

A

endocrine; some hormones act within seconds, others act within several minutes

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5
Q

—- released locally in response to nerve impulses

A

neurotransmitters

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6
Q

—- delivered to tissues throughout the body by blood

A

hormones

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7
Q

target cells for neurotransmitters;

A
  • muscle (smooth, cardiac, skeletal) fibers, gland cells and other neurons
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8
Q

types of target cells for hormones

A

cells throughout the body

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9
Q

exocrine glands

A
  • secrete their products into ducts
  • none of these are hormones
  • includes; sudoriferous (sweat) glands, sebaceous glands, mucous glands, digestive glands
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10
Q

endocrine glands

A
  • do not have ducts, they secrete their hormones directly into the interstitial fluid that surrounds them
  • secreting cells can be found in; hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, adipose tissue, placenta
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11
Q

examples of endocrine glands;

A

pituitary
thyroid
parathyroid
adrenal
pineal

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12
Q

hormones travelling throughout the body will only affect target cells that

A

possess specific protein receptors for the hormone

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13
Q

receptors may be down-regulated in the presence of

A

high concentrations of the hormone

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14
Q

receptors may be up-regulated in the presence of

A

low concentrations of hormone

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15
Q

circulating hormones

A

pass from secretory cells that make them into interstitial fluid and then blood

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16
Q

local hormones

A

act locally on neighbouring cells or on the same cell that secreted them without entering the bloodstream

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17
Q

local hormones that act on neighbouring cells are called

A

paracrines

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18
Q

local hormones that act on the same cell that secreted them are called

A

autocrines

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19
Q

what does nitric oxide do

A

relaxes smooth muscles which csuses vasodilation

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20
Q

water soluble hormones circulate freely in plasma and bind to

A

receptors on the exterior surface of the target cell

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21
Q

lipid-soluble hormones circulate bound to transport proteins

A

bind to receptors within target cells

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22
Q

examples of steroid hormones (lipid soluble hormones)

A
  • aldosterone
  • calcitriol
  • testosterone
  • estrogens and progesterone
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23
Q

examples of thyroid hormones (lipid soluble hormones)

A

T3 and T4

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24
Q

examples of eicosanoids (gas) - water soluble hormones

A
  • nitric oxide
  • prostaglandins
  • leukotrienes
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25
Q

examples of amines (water soluble hormones)

A

-epinephrine
- norepinephrine
- melatonin
- histamine
- serotonin

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26
Q

examples of peptides and proteins (water soluble hormones)

A
  • all hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones
  • oxytocin
  • ADH
  • insulin
  • glucagon
  • cacitonin
  • leptin
  • erythropotein
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27
Q

how a target cell responds to a hormone is based on:

A
  • hormones concentration in the blood
  • the number of hormone receptors on the target cell
  • influences exerted by other hormones
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28
Q

some hormones work more efficiently when a second hormone is present to assist them

A

synergist effect

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29
Q

some hormones oppose the action of others

A

antagonist effect
example: testosterone and estrogen

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30
Q

action of lipid soluble hormones

A
  1. lipid-hormone molecule diffuses from blood, through interstitial fluid to the lipid bilayer of plasma membrane into the cell
  2. if the cell is a target cell, the hormone binds to and activates receptors located within the cytosol or nucleus; then alters the gene expression
  3. as he DNA is transcribed, it directs synthesis of a new protein
  4. the new proteins alter the cells response and cause the responses typical of that hormone
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31
Q

not all lipid-soluble hormones bind to receptor cells. they may use a mechanism that is typical like water soluble hormones

A

eicosanoid

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32
Q

water soluble hormones bind to receptors that

A

protrude from the target cell surface

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33
Q

because amine, peptide and protein hormones are no lipid-soluble, they cannot

A

diffuse through plasma membrane of cells and bind to receptors inside target cells

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34
Q

when a water soluble hormone binds to its receptor at the outer surface of the plasma membrame;

A

it acts as the first messenger

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35
Q

what does the first messenger cause (water soluble hormones)

A

causes a production of a second messenger inside the cell, where specific hormone-stimulated responses take place

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36
Q

one common messenger is known as

A

cyclic AMP (cAMP)

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37
Q

action of water soluble hormones

A
  1. a water soluble hormone (the first messenger) diffuses from the blood into interstitial fluid and then binds to it’s receptor at the exterior surface of a target cells plasma membrane. Activates a G protein which activates adenylyl cyclase
  2. Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP into cyclic AMP. Because the enzymes active site is on the inner surface, this reaction occurs in the cytosol of the cell
  3. Cyclic AMP(second messenger) activates one or more protein kinases. converts ATP to ADP
  4. activated protein kinases phosphorylate. This turns some proteins on and some off.
  5. phosphorylated proteins cause reactions that produce physiological responses. therefore one protein might trigger glycogen synthesis whereas another may cause breakdown of trigycerides
  6. Lastly the enzyme phosphodiesterase (inactivated cAMP) turns off the cells new hormone molecyles contunue to bind to the receptors
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38
Q

the release of most hormones occurs in

A

short bursts, with little or no secretion between bursts

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39
Q

hormone secretion is regulated by

A
  • signals from the nervous system
  • chemical changes in the blood
  • other hormones
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40
Q

most hormone regulation is achieved via

A

negative feedback

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41
Q

other hormones operate via

A

positive feedback such as oxytocin

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42
Q

the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are connected via the

A

infundibulum

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43
Q

the hypothalamus secretes

A

releasing and inhibiting hormones that control the release of hormones by the pituitary gland

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44
Q

The hormones from the hypothalamus reach the pituitary gland via the

A

hypophyseal portal system

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45
Q

How does the hypophyseal portal system work

A
  • from the primary plexus, blood drains into the hypophyseal portal veins that pass down the outside of the infundibula stalk
  • the veins divide again at the anterior pituitary called the secondary plexus of the hypophyseal portal system
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46
Q

which hormone is the most plentiful in the anterior pituitary

A

human growth hormone

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47
Q

Growth hormone:
- target tissue
- principal actions

A
  • liver and other tissues
  • stimulates liver, muscle, cartilage, bone and other tissues to secrete insulin like growth factors that promote growth of body tissues
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48
Q

Thyroid stimulating hormone:
- target tissue
- principal actions

A
  • Thyroid gland
  • stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland
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49
Q

Follicle stimulating hormone:
- target tissue
- principal actions

A
  • ovaries and testes
  • females: initiates development of oocytes and induces ovarian secretion of estrogens
  • males: stimulates testes to produce sperm
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50
Q

Luteinizing hormone:
- target tissue
- principal actions

A
  • ovaries and testes
  • females: stimulates secretion of estrogens and progesterone, brings about ovulation, formation of corpus luteum
  • males: stimulates testes to produce testosterone
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51
Q

Prolactin:
- target tissue
- principal actions

A
  • mammary glands
  • together with other hormones, promotes milk production by mammary glands
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52
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone:
- target tissue
- principal actions

A
  • suprarenal cortex
  • stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) by the suprarenal cortex
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53
Q

Melanocyte stimulating hormone:
- target tissue
- principal actions

A
  • brain
  • exact role is unknown, when present in excess, can cause darkening of the skin
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54
Q

Posterior pituitary gland

A

does not synthesize any hormones, but stores and releases them
- oxytocin
- ADH

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55
Q

oxytocin:
- target tissue
- principal actions

A
  • uterus, mammary glands
  • stimulates contraction of smooth muscle cells of uterus during childbirth; stimulates contraction of myoepithelial cells in mammary glands to cause milk ejection
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56
Q

antidiuretic hormone:
- target tissue
- principal actions

A
  • kidneys, arterioles, sudoriferous glands
  • conserves body water by decreasing urine volume; decreases water loss through perspiration; raises blood pressure by constricting arterioles
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57
Q

Thyroid gland

A

a butterfly shaped gland located inferior to the larynx and anterior to the trachea
- has r and l lobes connected by isthmus

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58
Q

follicular cells of the thyroid gland are stimulated by

A

TSH to produce T3 and T4 cells

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59
Q

C-thyrocytes or parafollicular cells produce

A

calcitonin

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60
Q

What are the 8 steps for synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones

A
  1. iodide trapping
  2. synthesis of thyroglobulin
  3. oxidation of iodide
  4. iodination of tyrosine
  5. coupling of T1 and T2
  6. pinocytosis and digestion of colloid
  7. secretion of thyroid hormones
  8. transport to the blood
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61
Q

Iodide trapping (step 1 of thyroid process)

A
  • thyroid follicular cells trap iodine ions by actively transporting them from blood into the cytosol
  • as a result the thyroid gland contains most of the iodine in the body
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62
Q

Synthesis of thyroglobulin (TGB) - (step 2 of thyroid process)

A
  • while the T thyrocytes are trapping iodine, they are also synthesizing TGB ( a glycoprotein in the ER); the vesicles undergo exocytosis and release the TGB into the lumen of the follicle
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63
Q

Oxidation of iodide (step 3 of thyroid process)

A

negatively charged iodine ions must under go oxidation in order to be able to bind to tyrosine
- as they are oxidized, they pass through the membrane into the lumen of the follicle

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64
Q

Iodination of tyrosine (step 4 of thyroid process)

A

as iodine molecules bind with tyrosine, it becomes monoiodotyrosine, a second iodination produces diodotyrosine; a sticky material that accumulates and is stored in the lumen of the thyroid follicle termed colloid

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65
Q

Coupling od T1 and T2 (step 5 of thyroid process)

A

during the last step of synthesis of thyroid hormone, two T2 molecules join to form T4, or one T1 and T2 join to form T3

66
Q

Pinocytosis and digestion of colloid (step 6 of thyroid process)

A
  • droplets of colloid re-enter T thyrocytes by pinocytosis and merge with lysosomes.
  • digestive enzymes in the lysosomes break down TGB cleaving off molecules of T3 and T4
67
Q

Secretion of thyroid hormones (step 7 of thyroid process)

A

because T3 an T4 are lipid soluble, they diffuse through the plasma membrane into the interstitial fluid, and then into the blood.
- T4 is normally secreted in greater quantity than T3, but T3 is several times more potent
- moreover, once T4 enters a body cell, most of it is converted to T3 by removal of one iodine

68
Q

Transport in the blood (step 8 of thyroid process)

A

more than 99% of both T3 and T4 combine with transport proteins in the blood mainly thyroxine-binding globulin

69
Q

Function of thyroid hormones

A
  • increase basal metabolic rate
  • maintain normal body temp
  • stimulate protein synthesis
  • increase use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP production
  • work with hGH and insulin to accelerate body growth
70
Q

Parathyroid gland

A

located on the posterior aspect of each lobe on the thyroid gland

71
Q

What two cells do the parathyroid glands contain

A
  • chief cells: produce the parathyroid hormone PTH
  • Oxyphil cells; function is unknown
72
Q

Calcitonin produce by the thyroid gland works in junction wtih

A

PTH (parathyroid hormone) and calcitriol to regulate calcium homeostasis

73
Q

Function of parathyroid hormone

A

increases blood calcium and magnesium levels and decreases phosphate levels; increases bone resorption by osteoclasts; increases calcium reabsorption and phosphate excretion by the kidneys; promotes formation of calcitriol (active form of vit d -which promotes dietary calcium and magnesium absorption)

74
Q

Suprarenal glands (adrenal glands)

A
  • lie superior to each kidney in the retroperitoneal space, have a flattened pyramid shape
  • produce steroid hormones that are essential for life
  • comprised of suprarenal cortex and medulla
75
Q

The suprarenal cortex is divided into three zones (each secrete different hormones):

A
  • zona glomerulosa (outer)
  • zona fasciculata (middle)
  • zona reticularis (inner)
76
Q

The zona glomerolusa secretes hormones called

A

mineralcorticoids

77
Q

The zona fasciculata secretes hormones called

A

glucocorticoids

78
Q

The zona reticularis secretes hormones called

A

androgens ( steroid hormones that have masculinizing effects)

79
Q

Aldosterone is a mineralcorticoid secreted by the

A

zona glomerolusa

80
Q

Aldosterone

A
  • regulates homeostasis of Na+ and K+
  • helps adjust blood pressure and blood volume
81
Q

the —– controls secretion of aldosterone

A

The renin - angiotensin- aldosterone pathway (RAA)

82
Q

The renin -angiotensin - aldosterone pathway

A
  • dehydration, leads to decrease in bp and blood volume
  • this is detected by juxtaglomerular cells in the kidneys
  • the juxtaglomerular cells secrete renin which converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I which eventually gets turned to angiotensin II
  • angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction, and stimulates secretion of aldosterone by the suprarenal cortex
  • aldosterone increases sodium and water absorption by the kidneys and increases secretion of K+ and H+ into urine
83
Q

Cortisol is a glucocorticoid secreted by the

A

zona fasciculata

84
Q

glucocorticoids are regulated by

A

negative feedback loop

85
Q

Glucocorticoids helps control (FUNCTION)

A
  • protein breakdown (increase the rate
  • glucose formation
  • lipolysis
  • resistance to stress
  • inflammation
  • immune responses
86
Q

low blood levels of glucocorticoids, mainly cortisol, stimulate neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to secrete

A

corticotripin-releasing hormone

87
Q

The major androgen secreted by the suprarenal gland (by zona reticularis)

A

is the deydroepiandosterone (DHEA)

88
Q

Function of androgens in males

A
  • in males after puberty, the androgen testosterone is also released in much greater quantity by the testes
  • therefore the amount of androgen secreted by suprarenal glands is insignificant
  • stimulate growth of axillary and pubic hair
89
Q

Function of androgens in females

A
  • promote libido
  • are converted to estrogens
  • stimulate growth of axillary and pubic hair
90
Q

After menopause when ovarian secretion of estrogen ceases,

A

all female estrogens come from the conversion of suprarenal androgens

91
Q

The suprarenal medulla is a modified

A

sympathetic ganglion of the autonomic nervous system

92
Q

The hormone producing cells in the suprarenal medulla are the

A

chromaffin cells (ANS exerts direct control over chromaffin cells)

93
Q

The two major hormones released by the suprarenal medulla is

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine

94
Q

the hormones of the suprarenal medulla intensify which responses

A

sympathetic responses

95
Q

when do chromaffin cells get stimulated by the sympathetic preganglionic neurons

A

during stress or exercise

96
Q

Function of epinephrine and norepinephrine:

A
  • increase hr and force of contraction
  • increase bp
  • increase blood flow to; heart, liver, skeletal muscles, adipose tissue
  • dilate airways to the lungs; increase blood levels of glucose and fatty acids
97
Q

Pancreas

A

located in the curve of the duodenum
- it is both and exocrine and endocrine gland

98
Q

Roughly 99% of the cells of the pancreas are …

A

pancreatic acini (exocrine cells)

99
Q

What do the pancreatic acini produce

A
  • digestive enzymes which flow into the digestive canal through a network of ducts
100
Q

Pancreatic islets

A

scattered among acini
- endocrine cells

101
Q

What are the four types of pancreatic islet cells

A

alpha: glucagon
beta: insulin
delta: somatostatin
pancreatic polypeptide cells: secrete pancreatic polypeptide

102
Q

Function of glucagon:

A
  • raises blood glucose level by accelerating breakdown of glycogen into glucose in the liver; converting other nutrients into glucose in the liver; releasing glucose into blood
103
Q

Function of insulin

A

lowers blood glucose levels by accelerating transport of glucose into cells, converting glucose into glycogen. and decreasing glycogenolysis; increases lipogenesis and stimulates protein synthesis

104
Q

Function of somatostatin

A

inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon; slows absorption of nutrients from digestive canal

105
Q

Function of pancreatic polypeptide

A

inhibits somatostatin secretion, gallbladder contraction, and secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes

106
Q

Gonads:

A
  • organs that produce gametes; sperm in males and oocytes in females
  • they also secrete hormones
107
Q

Ovaries:

A
  • paired oval bodies located in the female pelvic cavity
  • produce several steroid hormones including; estrogens and progesterone
  • produce inhibin, and relaxin
108
Q

testes

A
  • oval glands that lie in the scrotum
  • produces testosterone (androgen)
109
Q

Function of estrogen and progesterone

A

together with gonadotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary; regulate female reproductive cycle, maintain pregnancy, prepare mammary glands for lactation, and promote development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics

110
Q

Function of relaxin

A

increases flexibility of pubic symphysis during pregnancy; helps dilate uterine cervix during labor and delivery

111
Q

Inhibin

A

inhibits secretion of FSH from the anterior pituirary

112
Q

Function of testosterone

A

stimulates decent of testes before birth, regulates sperm production; promotes development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics

113
Q

Pineal gland

A

pinecone shaped small endocrine gland attached to the roof of the third ventricle in the brain at the midline
- consists of masses of neuroglia and secretory cells called pinealocytes

114
Q

What does the pineal gland secrete

A

melatonin, an amine hormone derived from serotonin

115
Q

Function of melanin

A
  • contributes to body’s biological clock
116
Q

as more melatnonin is liberated during darkness than in light, this hormone is thought to promote

A

sleepiness

117
Q

melatonin contributes to the setting of the body’s biological clock, which is controlled by the

A

suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus

118
Q

Thymus

A

located behind the sternum between the lungs

119
Q

The thymus produces

A
  • thymosin, thymic humoral factor, thymic factor and thymopoietin
120
Q

Function of hormones produced by the thymus

A

promote maturation of the immune systems T cells (type of wbc that destroys microbes and foreign substances) and may retard the aging process

121
Q

What are other tissues that produce hormones but are not classified as endocrine glands

A
  • eicosanoids
  • growth factors
122
Q

What are the two eicosanoid molecules

A

prostaglandins and leukotrienes

123
Q

where are prostaglandins and leukotrienes found

A

in all body cells except RBCs, where they act as local hormones (paracrines or autocrines) in response to chemical or mechanical stimuli

124
Q

Eicosanoids are locally acting hormones derived rom

A

20 carbon fatty aid arachidonic acid

125
Q

To exert their effects, eicosanoids bind to receptors on

A

target cell plasma membranes and stimulate or inhibit the synthesis of second messengers such as cyclic AMP

126
Q

Leukotrienes stimulate

A

chemotaxis (attraction to a chemical stimulus) of white blood cells and mediate inflammation

127
Q

Prostaglandins function

A
  • alter smooth muscle contraction, glandular secretions, blood flow, reproductive processes, platelet function, respiration, nerve impulse transmission, lipid metabolism , and immune responses
  • they also have roles in promoting inflammation and fever and in intensifying pain
128
Q

Skin: cholecalciferol
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A
  • plays a role in the synthesis of calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D
129
Q

Digestive canal: gastrin
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A

promotes secretion of gastric juice; increases movements of the stomach

130
Q

Digestive canal: glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)

A

stimulates release of insulin by pancreatic beta cells

131
Q

Digestive canal: Secretin
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A

stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice and bile

132
Q

Digestive canal: cholecystokinin
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A

stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice and bile; regulates release of bile from gallbladder; causes feeling of fullness after eating

133
Q

Placenta: Human chorionic gonadotropin
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A

stimulates corpus luteum in ovary to continue production of estrogens and progesterone to mantain pregnancy

134
Q

Placenta: estrogens and progesterone
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A

maintain pregnancy; help prepare mammary glands to secrete milk

135
Q

Placenta: Human chorionic gonadotropin
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A

stimulates development of mammary glands for lactation

136
Q

Kidneys: Renin
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A

raises blood pressure by bringing about vasoconstriction and stimulates release of aldosterone

137
Q

Kidneys: erythropoietin
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A

increases rbc formation

138
Q

Kidneys: calcitriol ( active form of vit d)
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A

aids in absorption of dietary calcium and magnesium and phosphorus

139
Q

Heart: Atrial natruiretic peptide (ANP)
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A

decreases blood pressure

140
Q

Adipose tissue: Leptin
(hormones produced by other organs and tissues)

A

suppresses appetite; may increase FSH and LH activity

141
Q

Several newly discovered hormones are called

A

growth factors and they are involved in tissue development, growth, and repair

142
Q

Epidermal growth factor:

A
  • produced in submaxillary (salivary) glands; stimulates proliferation of epithelial cells, fibroblasts, neurons and astrocytes; suppresses some cancer cells and secretion of gastric juice by stomach
143
Q

Platelet-derived growth factor

A
  • produced in blood platelets;
  • used for hair restoration in men
144
Q

Fibroblast growth factor:

A
  • found in pituitary gland and brain; stimulates proliferation of many cells derived from embryonic mesoderm
  • stimulates formation of new blood vessels
145
Q

Nerve growth factor

A
  • produced in submandibular (salivary) glands
  • stimulates growth of ganglia in embryo
  • stimulates hypertrophy and differentiation of neurons
146
Q

Tumor angiogenesis factors:

A

produced by normal and tumor cells; stimulates growth of new capillaries, organ regeneration, and wound healing
- forms blood vessels to tumor cells so they get O2 supply

147
Q

Transforming growth factors;

A

produced by various separate molecyles

148
Q

Eustress

A

prepares us to meet certain challenges and thus is helpful

149
Q

Distress

A

any type of harmful stress that may be damaging

150
Q

Stressor

A

any stimulus that produces a stress response
- examples; heat. cold, heavy bleeding from wound, strong emotional reaction

151
Q

Three stages to a stress response

A
  1. initial fight or flight
  2. slower resistance reaction
  3. exhaustion
152
Q

The fight or flight response is initiated by nerve impulses sent from the —– to the —-

A

hypothalamus to the sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system

153
Q

the fight or flight stimulates the body’s

A

resources to prepare for immediate activity

154
Q

The resistance stage

A

lasts longer than the fight or flight stage

155
Q

The resistance stage helps the body to continue

A

fighting a stressor long after fight or flight response disappears
- this is why our heart pounds for several minutes after the stressor is removed

156
Q

Exhaustion

A

resources of the body may eventually become so depleted that they cannot sustain the resistance stage

157
Q

Prolonged exposure to high levels of

A

cortisol and other hormones in the resistance reaction cause supression of the immune system, ulceration of digestive canal, and failure of pancreatic beta cells

158
Q

Pituitary gigantism/acromegaly

A

caused by excess secretion of growth hormone
- abnormal increase in length of bones

159
Q

Goiter

A

caused by a reduction in the production of thyroid hormone

160
Q

Graves disease

A

develops due to excess thyroid hormone

161
Q

Cushings syndrome

A

characterized by hypersecretion of the suprarenal cortx
- bufallo hump
- flushed skin
- easy bruises
- poor wound healing

162
Q

elevated levels of cortisol in cushings syndrome causes

A

hyperglycemia, osteoporosis, weakness, hypertension and increased susceptibility to infection

BIOL 1191 (10 decks)

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