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BIOLOGY A LEVEL > CHAPTER 17 - ENERGY FOR BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES > Flashcards

CHAPTER 17 - ENERGY FOR BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES Flashcards

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1
Q

What examples of metabolic activities require energy

A

Active transport - (Essential for the uptake of nitrates by root hair cells, loading sucrose into sieve tube cells, selective reabsorption of glucose and amino acids in the kidney and the conduction of nerve impulses)

Anabolic Reactions - (Building of polymers such as Proteins, Polysaccharides and nucleic acids essential for growth and repair)

Movement - (brought about by cilia, flagella or the contractile filaments in muscle cells)

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2
Q

What are the flows of energy through living organisms

A

pg 460

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3
Q

How do plants make use of energy in glucose molecules

A

Photosynthesis, glucose formed,
light is trapped by chlorophyll molecules, which is used to drive the synthesis of glucose from CO2 and Water

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4
Q

What is Respiration

A

The process which organic molecules, such as glucose, are broken down into smaller into smaller inorganic molecules like carbon dioxide and water

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5
Q

Where is the energy stored within the bonds of organic molecules

A

Within the bonds of organic molecules that synthesise ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)

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6
Q

What are the two most important reactions in the living world

A

Photosynthesis (produces most of the biomass on earth) and Respiration (breakdown of the biomass to provide ATP for reactions)

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7
Q

What is the equation and purpose of Photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 6H2O <—> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Trap energy

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8
Q

What is the equation and purpose of Respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —–> 6CO2 +6H2O

Release energy

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9
Q

How is energy used in regard to bond breaking and forming

A

Energy is used to break bonds
Energy is released to form bonds

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10
Q

What is an exothermic reaction

A

Releasing of energy, heat to surroundings, more energy needed to form bonds than break them

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11
Q

What is an endothermic reaction

A

Takes in energy, heat to surroundings, more energy needed to break bonds than form them

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12
Q

Explain why it is incorrect to say that energy is produced

A

Energy cannot be created (or destroyed) energy is transferred

ATP is produced

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13
Q

Explain why ATP is not a good energy storage molecule but why organic molecules like lipids or carbohydrates are

A

ATP is not very stable easy to remove phosphate group

organic molecules are (more) stable
organic molecules are more energy dense

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14
Q

Explain the interrelationship between respiration and photosynthesis in organisms

A

In photosynthesis light energy is converted into chemical energy

inorganic molecules are
converted into organic molecules

water and carbon dioxide are converted to glucose (and oxygen)

Respiration uses oxygen produced in photosynthesis

organic molecules are broken
down into inorganic molecules

energy released is used to synthesise ATP

carbon dioxide
produced is used in respiration

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15
Q

What is broken down in respiration to form small inorganic molecules

A

Large organic molecules (eg. glucose)

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16
Q

Is respiration endo- or exothermic and why

A

Exothermic

Total energy required to break all of the bonds in a complex organic molecule Is less than the total energy released in the formation of all the bonds in the smaller inorganic products

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17
Q

What is the excess energy released during the formation of bonds in respiration used for

A

Synthesising ATP

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18
Q

What polarity of bond forms between Carbon and hydrogen

A

Non-polar, which means they are weak, and not a lot of energy is required to break them

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19
Q

Where does the extra energy required to make large molecules from small inorganic molecules in photosynthesis come from

A

The Sun

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20
Q

Why does respiration release large quantities of energy

A

The carbon and hydrogen released from large molecule form strong bonds with oxygen atoms, forming water and carbon dioxide - less energy needed to break bonds than form them

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21
Q

How is ATP produced in photosynthesis and respiration primarily synthesised

A

Chemiosmosis

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22
Q

What is Chemiosmosis

A

The diffusion of protons from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration through a partially permeable membrane

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23
Q

How does the movement of protons in chemiosmosis synthesise ATP

A

Movement of protons down their concentration gradient releases energy that is used in the attachment of an inorganic Phosphate (Pi) to ADP, Forming ATP

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24
Q

What is Chemiosmosis dependant on

A

The creation of a proton concentration gradient

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25
Q

Where does the energy needed to create a proton concentration gradient come from

A

High energy electrons - Excited electrons

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26
Q

How are Electrons raised to higher energy levels, or excited?

A

Electrons present in pigment molecules (eg. chlorophyll) are excited by absorbing light from the sun

High energy electrons are released when chemical bonds are broken in respiratory substrate molecules (eg. glucose)

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27
Q

Where do Excited electrons pass into after the have been raised to higher energy levels

A

Electron transport chain to generate a proton gradient

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28
Q

What is the electron transport chain made up of

A

A series of electron carriers, each with progressively lower energy levels
(pg 464)

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29
Q

How is a concentration difference maintained

A

As High energy electrons move from one carrier to another, energy is released, which is used to pump protons across a membrane

Proton gradient is maintained as the membrane is still impermeable to Hydrogen ions
(pg 464)

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30
Q

What is the only way Hydrogen ions (protons) can move back through the membrane

A

Hydrophilic membrane channels linked to the enzyme ATP synthase (catalyses formation of ATP from ADP and Pi)
(pg 464)

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31
Q

Explain the importance of ATP to living organisms

A

Universal energy currency

energy transfer is, quick/immediate

energy is in, small/usable,
quantities

(energy transfer) is quick, (energy transfer) in quantities that can be used; ATP can be
resynthesised

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32
Q

Describe the properties of cell membranes necessary for the formation of a proton gradient

A

Impermeable to, ions/protons

idea that there can be different concentrations of protons on each
side of a membrane

contains, embedded / integral, proteins

e.g., ATP synthase enzyme
responsible for synthesis of ATP

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33
Q

Name the type of diffusion which enables protons to move through ATP Synthase and explain the role of ATP synthase in the production of ATP

A

Facilitated diffusion

ATP synthase provides hydrophilic channel for diffusion of protons

catalyses the synthesis of ATP

lowers activation energy

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34
Q

The Synthesis and breakdown of ATP is an example of a reversible reaction

ADP + Pi <—-> ATP

ATPase is often the name given to the enzyme which hydrolyses ATP, producing ADP and Pi. ATPase and ATP Synthase are, in fact, the same enzyme. Explain how this is possible

A

Reversible reaction

the products formed from reaction in one direction are the
substrates of reaction in reverse direction (1);

active site is complementary to both substrates and
products

so substrates and products can bind to same active site

direction of reaction
depends on relative concentrations (of substrates/products) on either side of reaction

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35
Q

What are Autotrophic organisms

A

Organisms that can make their own food, mostly through photosynthesis

eg. plants and algae

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36
Q

What are Heterotrophic organisms

A

Organisms that obtain their food from eating other organisms

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37
Q

What is the equation for photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 6H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2

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38
Q

What do the network of membranes provide in a chloroplast

A

Large surface area (to maximise absorption of light essential to first step of photosynthesis)

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39
Q

Where does photosynthesis take place

A

Chloroplasts

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40
Q

What is a Thylakoid

A

The flattened sacs in a chloroplast

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41
Q

What is a Granum (pl. Grana)

A

Stacks of Thylakoids

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42
Q

What are the membraneous channels Grana are joined together by

A

Lamellae

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43
Q

Which part of the chloroplast is the pigment Chlorophyll (and other pigments) located

A

Embedded in thylakoid membranes

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44
Q

What is the fluid enclosed within a chloroplast

A

Stroma

45
Q

What do pigment molecules do

A

Absorb specific wavelengths (colours) of light and reflect others

Different pigments absorb and reflect different wavelengths

46
Q

What is the primary pigment in photosynthesis

A

Chlorophyll A

47
Q

What colours does chlorophyll absorb and reflect

A

Absorbs red and blue
Reflects green

48
Q

What are some other pigments involved in photosynthesis

A

Chlorophyll b, Xanthophylls and Carotenoids - gives different shades and colours of leaves

49
Q

What is the light harvesting system (antennae complex)

A

A combination of photosynthetic pigments and other proteins

50
Q

What is the role of the Light harvesting (antennae complex)

A

To absorb, or harvest, light energy of different wavelengths and transfer this energy quickly and efficiently to the reaction centre

51
Q

What pigment is present in the reaction centre

A

Chlorophyll A

52
Q

What are the 2 different types of pigment in photosystems

A

Primary and accessory pigments
(pg 468)

53
Q

What colour are carotene and Xanthophyll

A

Orange
Yellow

54
Q

What happens to chlorophyll if sunlight is too intense

A

Chlorophyll is destroyed

55
Q

What is Anthocyanin

A

Red/purple pigment, formed from a reaction between sugars and proteins in cell sap

56
Q

When is Anthocyanin produced

A

When concentration of sugars is high
High light intensity also promotes production of Anthocyanin

More light = more Photosynthesis, makes sugar
More sugar = more Anthocyanin

57
Q

What is the role of Anthocyanins

A

Sunscreen, absorbing blue-green and Ultraviolet light, inhibiting destruction of Chlorophyll

58
Q

What determines the colour of Anthocyanins

A

pH - red to purple scale
Red in apples
Purple in black grapes

59
Q

Suggest explanations for the following observations
a) Apples are often red on one side and green on the other
b) Leaves with more vibrant red colours are seen during years when there has been lots of sunlight and dry weather. When it has been raining and overcast there will not be as much red foliage present

A

A) Anthocyanins are red pigment

produced when light intensity and sugar concentration is high

apples have high sugar concentration; high intensity light affects one side more than the other.

B)Produced by enzymes

enzyme activity is temperature dependent

60
Q

Suggest why the production of anthocyanin is temperature-dependent

A

Enzymes involved in metabolic pathway

3D shape of enzyme is different at different temperatures

shape of active site changes

enzymes activated/inactivated

61
Q

What can be used to identify photosynthetic pigments

A

Chromatography

62
Q

How do you calculate Rf value

A

Distance travelled by solute / Distance travelled by solvent

63
Q

What are the two stages of photosynthesis

A

Light-dependant and Light-independent

64
Q

What happens in the light-dependent stage

A

Energy from sunlight is absorbed and used to form ATP

Hydrogen from water is used to reduce coenzyme NADP to form reduced NADP

(pg 469)

65
Q

What happens in the light-independent stage

A

Hydrogen from reduced NADP and Carbon dioxide is used to build organic molecules, such as glucose

ATP supplies required energy
(pg 469)

66
Q

What is the order to the two photosystems involved in the non-cyclic photophosphorylation stage of the light dependant-stage

A

Photosystem II (PSII) followed by Photosystem I (PSI)

67
Q

Which of the photosystems absorbs higher wavelength, PSI or PSII

A

PSI (700nm) (PSII absorbs 680nm)

68
Q

Where does electron excitation occur

A

Reaction centres of photosystems

69
Q

Describe the events in non-cyclic photophosphorylation

A

Suns (light/UV) energy excites electrons at reaction centre in PSII

Excited electrons are released from reaction centre of PSII and passed to electron transport chain

ATP is produced in chemiosmosis

The electrons lost at PSII reaction centre are replaced by photolysis

Excited electrons are released from reaction centre at PSI and passed onto another electron transport chain

ATP is produced by chemiosmosis

Electrons lost at PSI reaction centre are replaced by electrons passed along the ETC after being released from PSII

Electrons leaving PSI are accepted, along with a hydrogen ion, by coenzyme NADP to form Reduce NADP

NADP provides hydrogen or the reducing power in the production of organic molecules, eg. glucose, in the light independent stage
(pg 470)

70
Q

What is photolysis

A

The splitting of water molecules into Hydrogen ions, electrons and oxygen molecules using energy from the sun

71
Q

What is the equation of photolysis

A

H2O —> 1/2 O2 + 2e- + 2H+

72
Q

What does the oxygen-evolving complex in PSII do

A

it is an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of water

73
Q

Where do each of the products of Photolysis go

A

Electrons (2e-) - go to electron deficient PSII

Hydrogen (2H+) - Released into Lumen of thylakoids, increasing proton concentration across the membrane, moving down a concentration and electrochemical gradient driving the formation of ATP, then return to storm combining with NADP to form reduced NADP with an electron from PSI

Oxygen gas (1/2 O2) - Released as by-product

(pg 470)

74
Q

Describe cyclic-photophosphorylation

A

Electrons leaving the Electron transport chain after PSI can be returned to PSI, instead of being used to form Reduced NADP, leading to Cyclic photophosphorylation

PSI can still produce ATP without any electrons being supplied from PSII

Reduced NADP is not produced when this process occurs

(pg 471)

75
Q

What are the 3 stages that take place in light-dependant stage of photosynthesis

A

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

Cyclic photophosphorylation

Photolysis

76
Q

What are the two stages in the light-independent stage of photosynthesis

A

Calvin Cycle

Regeneration of RuBP (Ribulose Bisphosphate)

77
Q

Where does the Light dependant stage take place

A

Thylakoid membranes (maybe)

78
Q

Where does the light independent stage take place

A

Stroma (fluid enclosed within a chloroplast)

79
Q

What is the raw material used in the Light-independant stage of photosynthesis

A

Carbon Dioxide (ATP and reduced NADP are also required, and produced from Light dependent stage)

80
Q

Describe the events in the Calvin Cycle

A

FIXATION:
Carbon dioxide enters the intracellular spaces within spongy mesophyll by diffusion through stomata

Diffuses into cells and into stroma of chloroplasts where it combines with 5C molecule - Ribulose Bisphosphate (RuBP)

Carbon in Carbon dioxide is therefore fixed, now incorporated into an organic molecule

REDUCTION:
The enzyme Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase (RuBisCo) catalyses reaction and unstable 6C intermediate is produced

(RuBisCo is inhibited by oxygen)

Unstable 6C compound immediately breaks down into 2x 3C Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) molecules

Each GP molecule is converted into Triose Phosphate (TP) using Hydrogen atom released from reduced NADP and energy from ATP (both from light dependent stage)
(leaves 2 TP molecules)

REGENERATION
Most of TP is recycled to regenerate RuBP so Calvin cycle can continue, the rest is sued as a starting point to synthesise Carbohydrates (glucose mostly), Lipids, Proteins and amino acids

(pg471)

81
Q

What are the 3 summarised steps of the Calvin cycle

A

Fixation: CO2 is fixed (incorporated into RuBP)

Reduction: GP is reduced to TP by addition of H atom from reduced NADP using Energy supplied by ATP

Regeneration: RuBP is regenerated from the recycled TP

82
Q

How is RuBP regenerated

A

Each turn of Calvin Cycle produces 2 TP molecules

For one glucose molecule to be produced, 6 CO2 molecules will have to enter Calvin cycle, so 6 full turns of cycle

Overall production - 12 TP molecules (each has 3C)

2 TPs will be removed to make Glucose

Leaves 10 TP molecules (30 Carbons)

10 x 3 Carbon TP = 30 Carbons = 6 x 5 Carbon RuBP molecules

83
Q

Why does photorespiration reduce efficiency of photosynthesis

A

In high temperatures, stomata close to reduce transpiration

Prevents entry of CO2, CO2 conc falls and O2 levels increase

O2 competitively inhibits RuBisCo, leading to production of Phosphoglycolate, reducing production of GP

Phosphoglyolcate (2C) is a toxic molecule thy needs to be removed, or converted, which uses ATP

RuBisCo has higher affinity for CO2 than O2, and around 25% of products of Calvin cycle are lost in photorespiration

84
Q

Explain why photorespiration is not something commercial producers would want to encourage

A

Less carbon dioxide fixed

less, organic molecules / named examples, synthesised

reduced yield

85
Q

Suggest why plants evolved with such an important enzyme as a RuBisCO being inhibited by such a common molecule as oxygen

A

Photosynthesis produces oxygen

little / no, oxygen present in atmosphere when plants began to evolve

86
Q

SUMMARY OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS DIAGRAM!!!!!!! PAGE 473

A

LOOK AT IT

87
Q

Explain the meaning of the term photophosphorylation

A

Synthesis of ATP/addition of phosphate group to ADP

using energy from light

88
Q

Explain why photosynthesis stops when plants are exposed to green light only

A

Green light is reflected/not absorbed

no energy for light-dependent stage

no ATP and reduced NADP for light-independent stage

89
Q

Explain what is meant by the term fixation

A

Inorganic carbon

added to organic molecule

90
Q

A) the Calvin cycle used to be called the dark reaction. This time is now rarely used. Explain why this time is incorrect.
B) explain why the alternative name of the Calvin cycle, the light, independent stage, is not completely accurate

A

A) Calvin cycle happens during the light as well

B) Calvin cycle requires ATP
and reduced NADP
supplied from light-dependent stage

91
Q

Suggest the possible benefits of Cyclic photophosphorylation

A

ATP produced and reduced NADP not produced

electrons not required from PSII/photolysis

less ATP used in Calvin cycle

more ATP available for other metabolic processes

92
Q

Describe how RuBP is regenerated from TP in the Calvin cycle.

A

10 molecules of TP every six turns of cycle

using ATP

6 molecules of RuBP formed

reference to (3/5) carbon shuffle

reference to individual steps/named light, enzymes, coenzymes, ATP

carbon dioxide does not combine directly with water

93
Q

What are the 3 factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis and what impacts do they have

A

Light intensity - Needed as energy source, As light intensity increases, ATP and NADP are produced at a higher rate

Carbon Dioxide concentration - Needed as a source of carbon, increasing CO2 conc increases rate of fixation in Calvin Cycle, therefore rate of TP production,

Temperature - Affects the rate of enzyme-controlled reactions. As temperature increases, enzyme activity increases until the point at which they denature - increases carbon fixation, and photorespiration, due to high temps to reduce water loss, stomata will close

94
Q

State two ways rate of photosynthesis can be measured

A

Data logger - with oxygen and light sensors which are computerised

Potometer/Gas syringe/ bubble technique - Measure release of gas in a certain time frame under many conditions

95
Q

What effect does reducing the light intensity have upon the Calvin cycle

A

Reduces quantity of ATP and reduced NADP, which are needed to convert to convert GP to TP

Concentration of GP will increase as reduced conversion rates to TP

Less TP as less GP is converted

Less RuBP as less TP is present to regenerate it

Reverse will happen with increasing light intensity

96
Q

How does Temperature affect the Calvin Cycle

A

Catalysed by enzymes

At lower temps, particles have less KE and DFOSC, meaning lower Concentrations of DP, TP and RuBP

At high temps, Enzymes will denature, same effect seen

97
Q

How does the Carbon dioxide concentration affect the Calvin cycle

A

Low conc leads t predictions in DP and TP, RuBP will increase as it is not being used to fix carbon dioxide

Opposite for high conc

98
Q

Suggest what you think would be the basic components of an artificial photosynthesis

A

Pigment/cell, to absorb light energy

catalyst to split water

enzyme to reduce carbon dioxide

any other sensible suggestion

99
Q

When is C3 photosynthesis (normal) most efficient

A

Cool wet climates with average sunshine values

100
Q

What are the 3 types of Photosynthesis

A

C3 photosynthesis
C4 photosynthesis
CAM photosynthesis (Crassulacean acid metabolism)

101
Q

What are plants adapted for that use C4 photosynthesis

A

High temperatures and limited water supply

102
Q

How does C4 photosynthesis differ from regular C3

A

Able to fix Carbon dioxide more efficiently, so their somata can close quicker so they lose less water by transpiration

PEP carboxylase in mesophyll cells, also fixes oxygen first, which increases frequency of fixation, then transported, decarboxylated then fixed to RuBisCo and enters Calvin Cycle
eg. corn

103
Q

How does CAM photosynthesis work

A

Open stomata at night and close them during the day, reducing water loss by transpiration.

Carbon Dioxide converted to an acid and stored during the night

During the day, acid is broken down releasing CO2 to RuBisCo

During very dry spells, stomata can remain closed for day and night

Oxygen released by photosynthesis is used for respiration
eg. Cacti

104
Q

Some plants drop their leaves and twigs and become dormant during dry spells. Describe the way in which a cactus survives dry spells and the advantages of this method

A

Cactus swells
storing water in wet periods
leaves are spines
small surface area
spines collect water (from atmosphere)
extensive and shallow root system
open stomata at night cactus / CAM plants, use PEP carboxylase to fix carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide stored until daytime
limited quantity stored limited photosynthesis so limited growth

105
Q

Suggest why CAM plants can only keep their stomata closed night and day for short periods

A

Carbon dioxide required for photosynthesis

carbon dioxide enters plant through stomata

no, organic molecules / named examples, so no respiratory substrate

essential reactions / named examples, cannot take place

106
Q

Describe what is meant by a limiting factor

A

Factor which limits rate of a process
e.g., light in photosynthesis

107
Q

Suggest why the rate of oxygen production is only an estimate of the rate of photosynthesis

A

Oxygen is used in respiration
so not all oxygen produced is released

108
Q

Discuss, using what you have learnt in this chapter, how an understanding of the effect of limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis is used to design more efficient glasshouses

A

Limiting factors light, temperature, and carbon dioxide concentration

light is required for light- dependent stage

glasshouses are transparent / built from glass
carbon dioxide is required for light-independent stage

ventilation of glasshouse so concentration of carbon dioxide does not fall

temperature affects reactions in light-independent stage (and light-dependent stage)

use of heater

fossil fuel burners also release carbon dioxide

idea that each factor is maintained at a level that maximises the rate of photosynthesis but minimises waste

BIOLOGY A LEVEL (24 decks)

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