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AP Biology JCH > Chapter 16 DNA and Inheritance > Flashcards

Chapter 16 DNA and Inheritance Flashcards

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1
Q

TH Morgan

A
  • Studied the X chromosome of male fruit flies with white eyes
  • Found that genes are on chromosomes
  • 1910
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2
Q

Frederick Griffith

A
  • Cultured harmless rough bacteria with heat-killing pathogenic bacteria resulting in dead mice
  • Found that the transforming principle is a change in materialized trait
  • 1928
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3
Q

Avery, McCarty, MacLeod

A
  • Injected only protein or only DNA from pathogenic bacteria into mice
  • Found that transforming principle is a result of DNA, not proteins
  • 1944
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4
Q

Erwin Chargaff

A
  • Analyzed molecular contents of DNA
  • Found that DNA varies from species to species and [A]=[T] and [C]=[G]
  • 1950
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5
Q

Hershey and Chase

A
  • Grew phage viruses with radioactive sulfur or phosphorus, infected bacteria, blended, and centrifuged
  • Found that the DNA of the virus, not the proteins, infected the bacteria
  • 1952
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6
Q

Watson and Crick

A
  • Used Chargaff’s rules, Pauling’s alpha helical structure of proteins, and Franklin’s X-ray crystallography
  • Developed the double helix model of DNA
  • 1953
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7
Q

Rosalind Franklin

A
  • Produced X-ray crystallography images of DNA, with a clear double helix pattern
  • Discovered the sugar-phosphate backbone lies on the outside of the helix molecule
  • 1953
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8
Q

Meselson and Stahl

A
  • Cultured bacteria in heavy nitrogen (15N), then in a lighter isotope (14N) and sampled after generation 1 and 2
  • Found that DNA replication follows the semi-conservative model
  • 1958
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9
Q

What is transformation?

A

Transformation- a change in genotype and phenotype due to assimilation of foreign DNA

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10
Q

What are bacteriophages?

A

viruses that infect bacteria

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11
Q

What are the components of bacteriophages?

A

phage head, tail sheath, tail fiber, and DNA

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12
Q

What are Chargaff’s rules?

A
  • The base composition of DNA varies between species

- In any species the number of A and T bases are equal and the number of G and C bases are equal

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13
Q

What are the two components of DNA?

A

The two components of DNA are the sugar phosphate backbone and the nitrogenous bases

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14
Q

What molecules are at the 3’ and 5’ ends?

A

Phosphate hanging off of the 3’ end and deoxyribose hanging off of the 5’ end

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15
Q

What is the structure of DNA?

A

Double helix

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16
Q

What are the bonds between bases?

A

Hydrogen bonds

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17
Q

The backbones of DNA are _________

A

antiparallel

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18
Q

What are the two types of bases?

A

Purine and pyrimidine

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19
Q

How many rings does a purine have? Pyrimidine?

A
  • Purine- 5 and 6

- Pyrimidine- 6

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20
Q

How many bonds are there between the bases?

A
  • G: .C

- A:T

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21
Q

What is the semi-conservative model?

A

when a double helix replicates, each daughter molecule will have one old strand (derived or “conserved” from the parent molecule) and one newly made strand

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22
Q

What were incorrectly proposed models for DNA replication?

A

Competing models were the conservative model (the two parent strands rejoin) and the dispersive model (each strand is a mix of old and new)

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23
Q

Where does replication begin? And what does it form there?

A

Replication begins at particular sites called origins of replication, where the two DNA strands are separated, opening up a replication “bubble”

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24
Q

How many origins or replication does a prokaryotic cell have? Eukaryotic?

A

Prokaryotic- one

Eukaryotic- hundreds or thousands

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25
Q

What is a replication fork?

A
  • a Y shaped region where new DNA strands are elongating

- located at the end of each replication bubble

26
Q

What do helicases do?

A

untwist the double helix at the replication forks

27
Q

What do single strand binding proteins do?

A

bind to and stabilize single stranded DNA

28
Q

What does topoisomerase do?

A

corrects overwinding ahead or replication forks by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands

29
Q

What do DNA polymerases do?

A

catalyze the elongation of DNA at a replication fork

30
Q

What do most DNA polymerases require?

A

a primer and a DNA template strand

31
Q

What is the rate of elongation of DNA in bacteria and human cells?

A

The rate of elongation is about 500 nucleotides per second in bacteria and 50 per second in human cells

32
Q

What can’t DNA polymerases do?

A

DNA polymerases cannot initiate synthesis of a polynucleotide; they can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end

33
Q

What is the initial nucleotide strand?

A

a short RNA primer

34
Q

What enemy forms the primer, and what can it do?

A

Primase can start an RNA chain from scratch and adds RNA nucleotides one at a time using the parental DNA as a template

35
Q

Describe each nucleotide added to a DNA strand?

A

Each nucleotide that is added to a growing DNA strand is a nucleoside (sugar and a base) triphosphate

36
Q

How does DNA gain energy to replicate?

A
  • dATP supplies adenine to DNA and is similar to the ATP of energy metabolism
  • As each monomer of dATP joins the DNA strand, it loses two phosphate groups as a molecule of pyrophosphate
37
Q

What aspect of DNA structure affects replication?

A

antiparallel

38
Q

How does the antiparallel structure of DNA affect replication?

A

DNA polymerases add nucleotides only to the free 3’ end of a growing strand; therefore, a new DNA strand can elongate only in the 5’ to 3’ direction

39
Q

How is the leading strand synthesized?

A

Along one template strand of DNA, the DNA polymerase synthesizes a leading strand continuously, moving toward the replication fork

40
Q

How is the lagging strand synthesized?

A

DNA polymerase must work in the direction away fro the replication fork.

41
Q

What are the fragments formed by the lagging strand called and what binds them?

A

The lagging strand is synthesized as a series of segments called Okazaki fragments, which are joined together by DNA ligase

42
Q

What is the model for how DNA polymerase makes new DNA molecules?

A

DNA polymerase molecules “reel in” parental DNA and “extrude” newly made daughter DNA molecules

43
Q

What is the function of DNA pol 1?

A

DNA Pol 1- Removes RNA molecules of primer from 5’ end and replaces them with DNA nucleotides

44
Q

What is the function of DNA pol 3?

A

DNA Pol III- Using parental DNA as a template, synthesizes new DNA strand by covalently adding nucleotides to the 3’ end of a pre-existing DNA strand or RNA primer

45
Q

Describe an alternative function for DNA polymerase.

A

DNA polymerases proofread newly made DNA, replacing any incorrect nucleotides

46
Q

How may DNA be damaged?

A

DNA can be damaged by exposure to harmful chemical or physical agents such as cigarette smoke and X-rays; it can also undergo spontaneous changes

47
Q

What is nucleotide excision repair?

A

a nuclease cuts out and replaces damaged stretches of DNA

48
Q

What is the name for the proofreading mechanism in which a nuclease cuts out and replaces damaged stretches of DNA?

A

nucleotide excision repair

49
Q

How does altered DNA impact evolution?

A
  • Error rate after proofreading repair is low but not zero
  • Sequence changes may become permanent and can be passed on to the next generation
  • These changes (mutations) are the source of the genetic variation upon which natural selection operates
50
Q

What are telomeres?

A

special nucleotide sequences at the end of eukaryotic chromosomal DNA molecules

51
Q

What do telomeres do?

A

postpone the erosion of genes near the ends of DNA molecules

52
Q

What is the shortening of telomeres connected to?

A

aging

53
Q

What is the function of telomerase?

A

catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in germ cells

54
Q

What does a chromosome consist of?

A

a DNA molecule packed together with proteins

55
Q

Describe the structure of a bacterial chromosome?

A

The bacterial chromosome is a double-stranded, circular DNA molecule associated with a small amount of protein

56
Q

Describe the structure of a eukaryotic chromosome.

A

Eukaryotic chromosomes have linear DNA molecules associated with a large amount of protein

57
Q

Where is DNA located in a bacterium?

A

In a bacterium, the DNA is “supercoiled” and found in a region of the cell called the nucleoid

58
Q

What is chromatin?

A

a complex of DNA and protein, is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells

59
Q

How do chromosome fit into the nucleus?

A

through an elaborate, multilevel system of packing

60
Q

What is loosely packed chromatin called?

A

euchromatin

61
Q

What is highly condensed chromatin called and what are some examples?

A

heterochromatin

centromeres and telomeres

62
Q

What makes heterochromatin significant?

A

Dense packing of the heterochromatin makes it difficult for the cell to express genetic information coded in these regions

AP Biology JCH (12 decks)

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