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BIOLOGY > chapter 16 > Flashcards

chapter 16 Flashcards

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1
Q

receptor (sensor)

A

detects a stimulus that is involved with a physiological factor

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2
Q

coordinator system

A

transfer information between different parts of the body

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3
Q

effector (muscle gland)

A

to carry out a response

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4
Q

negative feedback

A

when any deviation from normal values are reasoned back into their original values

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5
Q

positive feedback

A

when change away from the normal initiates a response to increase change

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6
Q

hormones

A

Chemical messengers, often made of protein, secreted into the bloodstream from our endocrine glands.
Hormones travel to target organs / tissues via the bloodstream.

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7
Q

glycogenesis

A

the conversion of glucose to glycogen

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8
Q

glycogenolysis

A

the conversion of glycogen to glucose

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9
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

the conversion of non-carbohydrates to glucose

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10
Q

adrenaline

A

is a hormone released by the adrenal gland in response to stress or excitement

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11
Q

how does adrenaline increases blood glucose concentration

A

By attaching to receptors on the surfaces of target cells
and
activating enzymes involved in the conversion of glycogen to glucose - glycogenolysis

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12
Q

why must pH must be controlled

A

to maintain protein/ enzyme activity

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13
Q

diabetes

A

a medical condition where the patient is unable to control their blood glucose concentration

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14
Q

the second messenger model

A
  • Adrenaline, the first messenger, binds to specific receptors on target cell surface membrane to form a hormone-receptor complex
  • The hormone receptor complex activates an enzyme, adenylate cyclase, inside the membrane
  • the activated adenylate cyclase converts ATP into cyclic AMP (cAMP)
  • cAMP acts as the second messenger and activates another enzyme in the cytoplasm- a protein kinase- which causes the conversion of glycogen to glucose
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15
Q

factors that influence blood glucose concentration

A
  • the breakdown of the carbohydrates ingested in the diet
  • the breakdown of glycogen stored in the liver- glycogenlysis
  • new glucose molecules synthesised from substances other than carbohydrates, such as glycerol and amino acids- gluconeogenesis
  • level of mental and physical activity
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16
Q

insulin

A

hormone that lowers blood glucose concentration. beta cells in the insets of langerhans in the pancreas detect raised blood glucose levels and secrete insulin in response

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17
Q

how does insulin reduces blood glucose concentration

A
  • Causing more glucose channels to be inserted into the cell membrane, so increasing the uptake of glucose, especially by muscle cells
  • increasing the rate of respiration, so more glucose is used
  • activating enzymes involved in the conversion of glucose to glycogen- glycogenesis- in muscle and liver cells
  • causing excess glucose to be converted into fat
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18
Q

glucagon

A

increases blood glucose concentration. it is secreted by alpha cells in the islets of langerhans in the pancreas when blood glucose concentration is below the normal

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19
Q

how does glucagon raises blood glucose concentration

A
  • attaching to receptors on the surface of target cells, such as liver and muscle cells
  • activating enzymes involved in the conversion of the glycogen to glucose- glycogen-lysis
  • activating enzymes involved int eh conversion of glycerol and amino acids into glucose - gluconeogenesis
  • causing the body to use more fatty acids in respiration
20
Q

type 1 diabetes

A

insulin dependent

cause: the pancreas stops producing insulin, usually in childhood

treatment: - injections of insulin, 2-4 times a day
- blood glucose concentration is monitored using biosensors

21
Q

type 2 diabetes

A

insulin independent

cause: glycoprotein receptors on the cell surface membranes are lost or lose sensitivity; sometimes there is a reduction in insulin production

treatment : - regulate dietary carbohydrates, especially refined sugars
- may require insulin or drugs to stimulate insulin production.

22
Q

what is osmoregulation

A

the balancing and control of water potential of the blood

23
Q

what controls osmoregulation

A
  • antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
  • hypothalamus
  • posterior pituitary gland
24
Q

hypothalamus

A

a part of the brain that contains osmoregulatory receptor and produces ADH

25
Q

posterior pituitary gland

A

the back part of the pituitary gland that secretes ADH

26
Q

what are nephrons

A

are tiny tubules that make up the majority of a kidney. Nephrons remove waste products from the blood and produce urine

27
Q

how the kidney maintain water potential of the plasma and hence tissue fluid

A
  • formation of glomerular filtrate by ultrafiltration
  • reabsorption of glucose and water by the proximal convoluted tubule
  • maintenance of a gradient of sodium ions in the medulla by the loop of Henle
  • reabsorption of water by the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts
28
Q

the movement of glomerular filtrate out of glomerulus is restricted by

A
  • epithelial cell
  • connective tissue
  • epithelial cells of the renal capsule
  • hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the renal capsule space
  • the low water potential of the blood in the glomerulus
29
Q

how is the resistance of the glomerular filtrate is overcome by…

A

-the renal capsule is made up of podocytes. the spaces between these cells and their and their branches allow filtrate to pass through

  • the endothelium of the glomerular capillaries spaces between cells
  • the resulting the hydrostatic presence of the glomerulus is sufficient to overcome the resistance and filtrate pass through
30
Q

3 things that which increases solute concentration

A
  • too little water being consumed
  • too much perspiration
  • excess in ion consumption
31
Q

blood supply to the glomerulus

A
  • blood arriving in the glomerulus
  • it travels via the efferent arteriole
  • the afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent arteriole
  • this creates a high hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus
  • this pressure causes ultrafiltration
32
Q

describe how ultrafiltration produces glomerular filtrate

A
  • high hydrostatic pressure
  • water/ glucose/ ions/ urea are filtered out
  • through pores in the capillary endothelium
  • and through podocytes
  • large protein remains in the blood
33
Q

How are epithelial cells in PCT adapted for selective absorption

A

have many microvilli- provides a large surface area

has many carrier protein in the cell membrane for active transport

there are many mitochondria for aerobic respiration which means that cells make lots of ATP for aerobic respiration

34
Q

effect of adrenaline

A

causes :
-activates enzymes that causes glycogenolysis which causes blood sugar levels to increase

  • heart rate and breathing rate to increase
  • dilated pupils
  • diverts blood away from the digestive system and towards skeletal muscles
35
Q

actions of insulin

A
  • attaches to receptors on the surface of target cells and causes changes on the tertiary structure of channel protein- more glucose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion
  • more channel proteins creates larger surface area for glucose = more glucose is absorbed
  • activate enzyme - catalyses conversion of glucose to glycogen
36
Q

why is glucose found in the urine of a person with untreated diabetes

A
  • there’s a high concentration of glucose in the blood
  • not all glucose is absorbed at the proximal convoluted tubule
  • carrier protein are working at a maximum rate
37
Q

how increasing a cells sensitivity to insulin will lower the blood glucose concentration

A
  • more insulin binds to receptors
  • stimulates uptake of glucose by channel protein
38
Q

2 reasons why pancreas transplants are not used for the treatment of type II diabetes

A
  • insulin is still produced by type 2
  • it is treated by controlling diet
39
Q

2 ways in which people with type I diabetes control their blood glucose concentration

A
  • having regular insulin injections
  • control sugar intake
40
Q

osmoregulation

A

controlling water potential of the blood

41
Q

Hypertonic

A

blood with too low water potential- cells shrivel

  • more water is absorbed by osmosis into the blood from the tubules of the nephron this means the urine is more concentrated as less water is lost in the urine
42
Q

hypotonic

A

blood with a high water potential- cell burst

  • less water is reabsorbed by osmosis into the blood from the tubules of the nephron. this means urines is more dilute and more water is lost in urine
43
Q

role of the hypothalamus

A

changes in water concentration in the blood is detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus

44
Q

what happens if the water potential is too low

A

water leaves osmorecptors by osmosis
this stimulates hypothalamus to produce more ADH

45
Q

what happens if water potential is too high

A

water enters osmoreceptors by osmosis this stimulates hypothalamus to produce less ADH

46
Q

what is the role of ADH

A

increase permeability of the walls of collecting duct and distal convoluted tubule

-ADH binds to complementary receptors in the cell membrane of the kidneys
- this activate enzymes phosphorylase
- vesicles move towards membrane
- aquaporin embeds on membrane
- more water passes through

47
Q

how ultrafiltration occurs in a glomerulus

A

High hydrostatic pressure

small substances pass out water, glucose, ions, urea;

Through small pores in capillary
endothelium;

And through capillary basement membrane;

BIOLOGY (14 decks)

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