Chapter 14: Minds, Machines, and Cognitive Psychology Flashcards
Who is Blaise Pascal?
A French mathematician, inventor, and philosopher. As a child, he often watched his tax-collector father spend laborious hours calculating complicated accounts by hand, and as a youth he was sometimes recruited to help out.
What did Pascal’s invent?
consisted of a row of ten-toothed cogwheels, arranged so that each complete revolution of a wheel on the right produced a rotation of one tooth (one-tenth of a revolution) in the wheel to its left.
What did he call his machine?
A Pascaline
How did it work?
The “addition” of ten units of movement in any wheel resulted in a “carry” of one unit on the wheel to its left. Numerals attached to the wheels enabled the reading and recording of the results.
What is artificial intelligence?
Historically, the Pascaline stands as one of the first machines deliberately designed and built to exhibit what we now call AI, the capacity of a mechanical device to perform operations that replicate or imitate human thought processes and other intellectual behaviours.
What did Pascal declare about his machine?
he emphasized that it “does nothing which can allow us to say the tit has will” Therefore, he went on to declare in one of his most famous statements: “The heart has its reasons which reason knows nothing of…. We know the truth not only by the reason, but by the heart.”
For Pascal, matters of emotion and the will operate how?
operate independently of, and sometimes antagonistically to, the cold voice of reason, became the main differentiators between minds and machines. in various forms, this reservation continues to be expressed today by some of the participants in the field of AI.
What is binary arithmetic?
While he was inventing his calculator and developing the infinitesimal calculus, Leibniz also came up with the idea of binary arithmetic - the representation of all numbers by just ones and zeros.
Who is Charles Babbage?
The next pioneer in developing intelligent machines was a true intellectual heir to Leibniz in more ways than one. He was the precocious son of a wealthy English banker, studied German and mathematics on his own and as a teenager mastered Leibniz’s German-language presentation of the calculus.
What is the difference engine?
Babbage’s imagined machine, which he called a difference engine, had great potential for practical usefulness.
What was Babbage’s visionary device?
he called it the analytical engine.
What were the five main components?
The first was the input system, for the data and instructions, second is the analytical engine, he called the mill, that would perform the actual calculations; the third is the control mechanism that recorded instructions from the input system and ensured that the prescribed calculations occurred in the proper sequence. Fourth, a memory store was required, to retain not only the original data fed to the machine, but also, crucially, the results of calculations previously performed, for possible use in still further computations. Fifth, Babbage proposed an output device for presenting the final results of the analytical engine’s series of calculations. These five main components still define the major functional units of a modern computer.
Who was Ada Lovelace?
Mathematically gifted, She married William King, who soon after was named the Earl of Lovelace. She officially became Ada, the Countess of Lovelace.
What was Lovelace’s objection?
this constraint has been expressed in more modern terms as: “Computers can only do what they have been programmed to do.”
Who is George Boole?
Babbage didn’t live long enough, however, to see the realization of his and Lovelace’s prediction that the domain of algebra could be greatly expanded. In 1854 the largely self-taught Englishman George Boole introduced the concept of symbolic logic, arguing that all of traditional mathematics should be thought of as just one of many possible forms of systematic symbol manipulation.
What is Boolean Algebra?
Boole translated much of the content of traditional logic into this formal, mathematics-like terminology, using procedures now appropriately referred to as Boolean algebra.
Who is Alan Turing?
The son of a member of the Indian Civil Service, he showed an early aptitude for mathematics and science, which was not particularly rewarded at his classically oriented secondary school.
What is the Turning machine?
This imagined device, which came to be, involved just two essential components. First was a tape, divided into squares each of which may be blank or may contain a single symbol from the set of computable symbols. Second was a head, which rides above the tape and ‘reads’ the squares one at a time.
What are the three possible outcomes?
(1) It can “overwrite” the symbol with a new one or a blank, or keep it the same; (2) it can move the tape one square to the right or to the left (bringing another symbol to be read and operated on), or it mat halt; and (3) it can alter its own internal state or keep it the same.
Where were Turing’s groundbreaking contributions presented?
In a 1937 paper with the main title, “On Computable Numbers.”
Who is Claude Shannon?
an American graduate student in electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, proposed the basic idea for an even simpler type of computer architecture.
What are binary switches?
Networks of simple binary switches in either “on” or “off” states could represent the patterns of ones and zeroes constituting the binary code, which in turn could represent complex computational problems.
What is the Turing Test?
in essence, what has com to be called the Turing test assesses the “intelligence” of a machine according to its ability to perform some complex task requiring genuinely intelligent behavior, in a manner outwardly indistinguishable from that of a person.
What is an information theory?
Applying his system of binary logic to communication issues such as speech recognition, the work became an instant classic and initiated the modern field of information theory.
What did Shannon call the bit?
The amount of information that can be conveyed by the open or closed status of a single binary switch (one or zero).
Who is Allen Newell and Herbert Simon?
Among the first to use the new technology and attempt the computer simulation of complex human reasoning - to pass a version of the Turing test - were Allen Newell and Herbert Simon at the Rand Corporation in California.
What is Logic Theorist (LT)?
Looking for an achievable an interesting symbol-manipulation task to simulate, they considered chess playing but settled instead on a project with almost poetic appropriateness: the reproduction of formal proofs for some of the theorems that lay at the heart of symbolic logic.
What is heuristics?
In the language of Newell and Simon, a more advanced artificial intelligence would have to incorporate heuristics:shortcut techniques that would limit the computer’s “search space” to be explored for solutions.
What is a General Problem Solver (GPS)?
Newell and Simon attempted to build heuristics into a new and more ambitious AI program called GPS.
What is a means-ends analysis?
Following hints from these human models, they designed GPS to use a means-ends analysis as a heuristic technique to limit the search options.
What is a TOTE unit?
Inspired by GPS’s means-ends strategy, they co-authored Plans and the Structure of Behavior, a short 1960 book that proposed the TOTE unit as a new central concept in the analysis of thinking and reasoning.
What is known as serialist (symbolic) processing?
The earliest programs, including LT and GPS, worked by performing specified sequences of operations on specified sets of symbols, both of which have been stored in specific memory locations. this type of computer programming is known as serialist processing .
What is known as connectionist processing?
Since the computer scientists developed a different strategy known as connectionist processing, also referred to as parallel distributed processing, which detects patterns of activity that go on throughout the whole system, rather than symbols in specified locations.
What is Margaret Biden’s Improbabilist creativity?
it involves putting already familiar ideas or components together in new and useful or interesting combinations, according to rules that have already been established.
What is Boden’s Impossibilist creativity?
By contrast, involves changing the rules themselves - in Boden’s terms, effecting a “transformation of conceptual space.”
Who is John Searle?
A philosopher who addressed this issue by suggesting a provocative thought experiment known as the Chinese room.
What’s the difference between weak AI and strong AI?
Searle defined the ability of computers to solve problems using processes that resemble, and may serve as models for, certain aspects of human thinking, but without accompanying attributes such as intentionality and subjective consciousness, as weak AI. Strong AI, in his terms, would have to be indistinguishable in all respects from human Intelligence. Searle affirmed his belief only in the weak form.
Who is George A. Miller?
He was the son of a West Virginia steel executive and Christian Scientist who did not believe in the effectiveness of modern medicine.
What is Shannon’s beautiful theory?
Miller later recalled that his life “was never the same again” after this encounter with Shannon’s ‘beautiful theory.’
What is the magical number seven, plus or minus two?
Nearly at the last minute, he thought of a seemingly coincidental numerical similarity, which gave rise to one of the most frequently cited papers in the history of experimental psychology;
Who is Noam Chomsky?
Whom we met in Chapter 9 as a critic of Skinner’s theory of verbal behavior, was the son of highly educated Jewish immigrants who came from Europe to Philadelphia.
What is Noam Chomsky’s manuscript?
The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory.
What is semantics and syntax?
Linguistic theory differentiates between semantics, which involves the meanings of words used in a communication, and syntax, which involves the logical relationships among words as governed by the grammar of the language being used.
Who is Jerome S. Bruner?
Miller forged a more enduring and explicitly psychological collaboration with his slightly older Harvard colleague Jerome S. Bruner.
What is the “new look” in perception?
Also at war’s end, Bruner returned to Harvard as a faculty member. He proceeded to collaborate with students and colleagues on a famous series of studies demonstrating what became known as the “new look” in perception.
What is Bruner’s set?
These studies partially recalled the introspective demonstrations of set and determining tendencies that had been conducted in Kulpe’s Wurzburg laboratory in the early 1900s.
What was the origin of the Harvard Center for Cognitive Studies?
Then the two prominent professors convinced their Harvard dean to grant them the use of a campus building . In naming their new venture, Miller recalled, “we simply changed (Bruner’s program) from a project to a centre.”
How is Cognition defined?
As the mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding.
What is cognitive dissonance?
Festinger coined the term to describe the uncomfortable mental state caused by holding two contradictory beliefs.
What is cognitive revolution?
some psychologists and historians regard the Harvard Center’s founding as marking the formal launch of a cognitive revolution in psychology - a dramatic turning of the discipline’s primary focus in a significant new direction.
Who is Sir Frederic Bartlett?
British psychology, in fact, had always been less behaviouristic than American, and its most famous experimentalist, had practiced an approach that could clearly be described as cognitive.
What is his famous book?
Remembering: A study in Experimental and social psychology.
What is Schemata?
Bartlett demonstrated how memory is not ‘objectively’ reproductive, but is powerfully shaped by culturally and socially established predispositions he called schemata.
What is Miller’s counter-revolution?
Miller suggested that the cognitive movement be characterized as a counter-revolution against the geographically limited behaviourist revolution of earlier figures, such as Watson and Skinner, who rejected the introspective and mentalist methods of their predecessors, including Wundt, Titchener, and James.
What is Wundt’s Textbook?
Physiological psychology
What is James textbook?
Principles of psychology
What is Floyd Allport’s book?
Social psychology
What is Gordon Allport’s book?
Personality: A psychological interpretation.
Who is Ulric Neisser?
was born in Germany, the son of a distinguished Jewish economist who anticipated the looming Hitler disaster and emigrated with his family to the United States in 1933.
What is the flashbulb memory?
a vivid recalled image of exactly where one was and what one was doing when some particularly momentous event occurred.
What is Neisser’s general approach?
Cognitive Psychology, emphasizing the mind’s processing of its sensory inputs, was a modern updating of the earlier conceptions by Leibniz and Kant of the human mind as an active, transformative agency.
What is cognitive psychology?
rapidly became accepted as an important and independent sub discipline in academic psychology, formally defined as the study of the important mental processes that intervene between an activating stimulus and a final adaptive response.
