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+ FMST 210 > Chapter 13: Gender and Sexuality > Flashcards

Chapter 13: Gender and Sexuality Flashcards

1
Q

What is sex?

A

biological, genetic make-up (ie. females: XX, ovaries, and males: XY, testes)

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2
Q

What is gender?

A

fluid, whether an individual identities as masculine or feminine

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3
Q

What are gender role norms?

A

normative expectations for males and females that are applied to individuals’ everyday behavior

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4
Q

What are female gender role norms?

A

females expected to have a more expressive role (caretakers, cooperative)

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5
Q

What are male gender role norms?

A

males expected to have a more instrumental role (active, dominant, independent, competitive, breadwinner)

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6
Q

What is gender typing?

A
  • classifying the world according to girls and boys
  • identify with either feminine or masculine gender
  • acquire gender role norms
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7
Q

When does gender typing start?

A

occurs as early as 18 months (toddler)

  • able to describe their own sex (because that is how people refer to them)
  • refer to their sex in positive terms and the other sex in negative terms
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8
Q

How does gender typing develop between 18 months and 2 years of age?

A

tendency to choose same-sex playmates, and prefer toys and activities associated with their own sex

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9
Q

What is androgyny?

A
  • integrating masculine and feminine characteristics

- have skills to be successful in both masculine and feminine domains (expressive and instrumental roles)

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10
Q

What is being androgynous linked with in terms of well-being?

A

linked with positive adjustment:

higher self-esteem, psychosocial maturity, and life/work/relationship satisfaction

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11
Q

What is cisgender?

A

biological/birth-assigned sex matches gender identity

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12
Q

What is transgender?

A

those who do not identify with their biological/birth-assigned sex but instead adopt an opposite-sex gender identity

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13
Q

What are the 3 main sex differences?

A
  • physical differences
  • cognitive differences
  • socioemotional differences
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14
Q

Sex Differences

Describe physical differences in childhood.

A

boys tend to be more physically active than girls

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15
Q

Sex Differences

Describe physical differences post-puberty.

A
  • men tend to be bigger, faster, and strong
  • men have larger skeletal structure
  • men have more muscle % in body weight, while women have more fat % in body weight

these can be due to HORMONAL differences

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16
Q

Sex Differences

Describe cognitive differences.

A
  • girls: early on, they typically talk earlier than boys and have large a vocabulary, but this disappears in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood
  • boys: have advantage over women in terms of mental rotation skills/tasks (has to do with spatial relations and being able to picture and alternate things in your mind)
  • no difference between girls and boys as a whole on intelligence tests
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17
Q

Sex Differences

Describe emotional differences.

A

girls have better emotion regulation skills, are better at identifying their emotions and the emotions of others, and are more emotionally expressive (except anger)

HOWEVER, can be environmental differences: operant conditioning—ie. girls get rewarded for things, boys get punished for things

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18
Q

Sex Differences

Describe aggression differences.

A
  • boys exhibit more physical and verbal aggression
  • girls are more involved in relational aggression (ie. name-calling, excluding from the group, social media bullying, talking behind someone’s back)
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19
Q

Sex Differences

What could cause more aggression in boys?

A
  • could be that aggression in boys is caused by increased levels of testosterone
  • could also be environmental—operant condition (ie. boys behavior is rationalized due to “boys will be boys,” girls get punished for being aggressive)
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20
Q

Describe gender development in infancy and toddlerhood.

A
  • seem to have understanding of their own sex by 18 months
  • tend to show more interest in toys that match their biological sex (could be due to being familiar with these certain toys given to them by parents and others)
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21
Q

Describe gender development in childhood.

A
  • tend to hold rigid beliefs about how boys and girls should act
  • knowledge of their own gender influences preferences for toys, activities, and playmates
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22
Q

Gender Development in Adolescence

What is gender intensification?

A

young adolescents become increasingly sensitive to gender stereotypes and their behavior is likely to adhere to gender stereotypes

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23
Q

Gender Development in Adolescence

What drives development/behaviour?

A
  • social pressures may drive more gender-stereotypic behavior
  • important for them to be accepted by their peers
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24
Q

Describe gender development in early adulthood.

A
  • gender intensification is reduced

- individuals can become more flexible and androgenous, realize it can be helpful in relationships and work environments

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25
Q

Describe gender development after the arrival of children.

A
  • relationships tend to become more gendered
  • woman typically is the one who leaves work to take care of the baby
  • driven by laws—in Canada, there is paid maternity leave
  • sets the stage to be the primary caregiver, even when she goes back to work
  • man becomes the primary breadwinner
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26
Q

What are the 2 biological influences on gender development?

A

evolutionary perspective

hormonal influences

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27
Q

What is the evolutionary perspective?

A
  • gender differences in behavior are adaptive (we need men to behave masculinely, and women to behave femininely for us to continue to evolve)
  • men needed to be aggressive and competitive because it was advantageous for them in an effort to secure a mate and pass down genetic inheritance to be sure that the human race reproduced
  • women needed to be nurturing because they needed to take care of their young and protect them so that they can grow up, find a mate, and pass down their genes to the next generation
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28
Q

What are prenatal hormonal influences?

A
  • presence or absence of androgens (masculinizing hormones—make things more male-like) affects development of external genitalia
  • can affect brain development, which can then derive gender behaviors
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29
Q

Research Study: looked at women who had high levels of androgens when they were pregnant with girls

A

girls who were influenced by androgens, now as preschoolers, are more interested in strenuous physical activity, less interested in playing with dolls, and less interested in real babies/children

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30
Q

What are pubertal hormonal influences?

A
  • high levels of testosterone promote male-typical behavior

- high levels of estrogen promote female-typical behavior

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31
Q

What is a gender schema?

A

concept or mental structure that organizes gender-related information and embodies the understanding of what it means to be feminine or masculine

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32
Q

From a cognitive-developmental standpoint, how would we explain that gender develops the way that it does?

A

in young children, they create a gender schema that becomes a organizing principle and guide that they use for their behaviours and attitudes

ie. both boys and girls have a schema for how girls should behave, and a schema for how boys should behave

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33
Q

Contextual Influences on Gender Development

What is social construction of gender?

A

society constructs or creates a set of beliefs that describe how each gender should behave

  • there is an emphasis on social learning in the influence of sociocultural context
  • ie. no biological reasoning that it is socially acceptable for women to wear dresses, but not men
34
Q

Contextual Influences on Gender Development

Why do notions of gender vary considerably around the world?

A

because each society/culture constructs a different idea of what gender means

  • ie. in France, men greet each other by kisses on the cheek, but if men in the U.S. did that, it would be assumed that they are gay
35
Q

Contextual Influences on Gender Development

Describe the influence of models in acquiring gender-typical behaviour.

A
  • use models to guide behavior (girls look to models of women, boys look to models of men)
  • feedback from others serves as reinforcement (gender-appropriate behaviour is rewarded, and gender-inappropriate behaviour is punished)
36
Q

Contextual Influences on Gender Development

Describe the influence of gender typing.

A

gender typing occurs through socialization, through a child’s interpretation of the world, influenced by parents, peers, media, and culture

  • by middle school, children have so internalized the rules of gender, and carry those rules throughout life
37
Q

Contextual Influences on Gender Development

Describe the influence of parents.

A
  • different perceptions and expectations for each gender (before baby is even more, parents start making assumptions about their child based on biological/chromosomal traits)
  • encourage gender-typed behavior (some parents punish cross-gendered behaviour)
  • encourage same-sex playmates
38
Q

Contextual Influences on Gender Development

Describe the influence of peers.

A

peers reinforce gender-typed behavior and criticize crossgender activities

39
Q

Contextual Influences on Gender Development

Describe the influence of the media.

A

gender stereotyping in media depictions (ie. toys)

  • ie. pink and purple colours for girls, primary colours for boys
  • ie. feminine activities (shopping, baking) vs. masculine activities (engineering)
  • ie. LEGO Friends: bigger pieces, less complex building vs. LEGO Build Together: smaller pieces, allows for more creativity

depictions of female and male characters
- see more male than female characters

40
Q

Contextual Influences on Gender Development

Describe the influence of the larger culture.

A

most cultures emphasize and magnify gender differences

  • all societies have values regarding gender-appropriate behavior
  • all societies transmit these values to children
41
Q

Explain what “doing gender” in adult relationships means.

A

once we reach adulthood, we try to exhibit androgenous behaviour, but we keep getting pushed back to gendered behaviour
- almost feels ‘natural’ because individuals have all this exposure that’s reenforcing gender throughout childhood and adolescent

42
Q

Describe emerging sexuality in childhood.

A
  • normal for children to have sexual feelings
  • childhood self-stimulation
  • sexual feelings are possibly present from birth
43
Q

What is adrenarche?

A
  • maturation of adrenal glands
  • marks transition in children’s sexual desire to begin emerging (both self-stimulation, and other-oriented)
  • stimulates hormones that begin pubertal changes
44
Q

What is sexual identity?

A

one’s sense of self regarding sexuality, including one’s awareness and comfort regarding one’s sexual attitudes, interests, and behaviours

  • in reality, there is an endless amount of sexual identities because everyone has different feelings
45
Q

What influences sexual orientation at birth?

A

could be influenced by biological factors such as genetics, exposure to hormones in utero

  • who you are drawn to, who you imagine to spend your life with, and imagine in a sexual way may be largely present at birth
46
Q

Where is same-sex behaviour found in the world?

A

in virtually all societies (no matter if it’s acceptable or condemned)

47
Q

When did same-sex behaviour become legal in Canada and the US?

A
  • 1969: legal in Canada
  • 2003: legal in U.S. —has to do with strong Christian connections that aren’t as embedded in Canadian society
  • still prohibited in many countries, penalty is death
48
Q

When is the average age that individuals ‘come out’ today? Why is it different than before?

A

over the last 20 years, individuals are coming out at ages earlier than before, which has to do with the increasingly inviting, positive cultural context that surrounds non-heterosexual orientations today

49
Q

Experience of Prejudice and Discrimination

Peer harassment and victimization, bullying, shaming people on social media.

A
  • can contribute to the LGBT teen’s increased risk for psychological and behavioural problems, suicidal ideation
  • attempts at suicide are highest in LGBT youth
50
Q

Experience of Prejudice and Discrimination

More accepting reaction from others buffers the risks of discrimination.

A

the more people around you who are accepting and positive, if there is someone else being discriminatory, it is less likely to affect the individual

51
Q

Experience of Prejudice and Discrimination

Individuals with a strong non-heterosexual identity and sexual orientation.

A
  • less likely to internalize the discrimination
  • have less of a negative effect on them, therefore stronger identity is related to lower risks for psychological and behavioural problems
52
Q

What is the average age of first intercourse in Canadian youth?

A

16.5 years old

chances are high that they have been participating in other behaviours before (ie. gateway to intercourse is oral sex)

53
Q

How do ethnic differences influenced by SES and contextual factors influence sexual activity in adolescence?

A
  • youth of colour are having intercourse at earlier ages than caucasian youth
  • living in a single-parent home (youth of colour are more likely to live in a single-parent home, low SES, and have less parental monitoring)
  • poor neighbourhoods have fewer community resources, so adolescents are idle all afternoon while parents are at work, and they need something to do
54
Q

Who is more likely to participate in early sexual activity (ie. before age 15)?

A

lower SES and individuals of colour

55
Q

What is early sexual activity associated with?

A

associated with behaviour problems

ie. more likely to participate in alcohol and substance use, poor academic achievement, participate in delinquent activity, have larger number of sexual partners

56
Q

What is sexting?

A

exchange of explicit sexual messages or images via mobile phone

57
Q

What is sexting linked to?

A
  • early sexual activity, and risky sexual activity in adolescents as young as 13 years old
  • linked to emotional problems such as depression, low self-esteem
  • linked to substance use
58
Q

Describe peer influences on adolescent sexual activity.

A

adolescents who have sexually active peers, and have positive attitudes about sex, they are more likely to initiate sexual activity, participate in it more frequently, and have more sexual partners

59
Q

Describe parenting influences on adolescent sexual activity.

A

open conversations about sexual activity with parents (characterized by support and humour) are more likely to have later onset of sexual activity and fewer engagement in risk behaviour

  • more likely to use contraception
  • fewer sexual partners
  • conversations are most helpful if they start before puberty, it’s awkward conversation after puberty starts and less beneficial
60
Q

Describe the teen birth rate in Canada vs. US.

A
  • rates have declined in both since mid-1990s, mostly due to increased use of contraception (not related to sexuality education)
  • U.S. teen birth rate is double that of Canada
61
Q

What are the risk factors of adolescent pregnancy?

A
  • poverty
  • low parental warmth
  • poor parental monitoring
  • poor school achievement
  • delinquency
  • substance use
  • depression
  • early menarche
  • family members who are adolescent parents
62
Q

What are the maternal outcomes of adolescent pregnancy?

A
  • low educational attainment
  • unstable marriage
  • financial dependence
  • residential dependence
  • single parenthood
  • poverty
  • low-level, unsatisfying employment
63
Q

What are the child outcomes of adolescent pregnancy?

A
  • less prenatal care
  • more birth complications
  • poor school achievement
  • behaviour problems
  • delinquency
  • substance use
64
Q

What are protective factors of adolescent pregnancy?

A

factors that help teen parent and their child avoid some of those maternal and child outcomes of adolescent pregnancy

65
Q

What are examples of protective factors of adolescent pregnancy?

A
  • readiness to become a parent: some girls are ready to become a parent and know that they can be a good mom, such as girls who live in low income families (ie. they do not have many opportunities, don’t see themselves going to university)
  • family and community support
  • stability of living environment: parents did not kick the teen out
  • involvement of the father: more involved physically, and possibly financially
  • no history of abuse, especially sexual abuse
66
Q

What is casual sex?

A

sexual activity outside of romantic relationships (“hooking up”)

67
Q

Is casual sex common?

A

common; in Canadian university students, 30% of men and 23% of women report that their last sexual encounter was a friends with benefits situation

68
Q

Where does casual sex occur most often?

A

in context of college parties and most frequently involves alcohol use

  • many individuals report some level of distress and regret afterwards
69
Q

What are the benefits to casual sex?

A
  • easier and less time-consuming

- less potential for it to be emotionally damaging

70
Q

Why do women experience more negative emotional consequences?

A

related to double standard—society is more acceptive of men doing this (receive social rewards) than women (slut shaming)

71
Q

Why does research show that casual sex relationships cannot last long?

A
  • one partner starts to have feelings for the other and the other does not care, and so feelings get hurt
  • one partner starts to have feelings for someone else, and so they no longer want to be involved in the relationship anymore
72
Q

What is rape?

A

nonconsensual sexual penetration of the body by the body part of another person or object

73
Q

What is sexual assault?

A

broader term referring to a wide variety of nonconsensual sexual contact or behavior

includes instances when

  • victim is coerced by fear tactics (ie. threat to hurt them or someone else if the victim doesn’t cooperate)
  • victim is incapable of giving consent (ie. substance use, passed out, age)
74
Q

Who is most likely to be the perpetrators of rape?

A

much more likely to be someone known by the victims than a stranger

75
Q

Why is sexual assault underreporting high?

A

the stronger the relationship is between assailant and the victim, the less likely it is to be reported (ie. sexually assaulted by boyfriend or husband) because they feel like no one will believe them because it does not seem likely

76
Q

What are consequences of sexual assault?

A
  • higher chance of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression
  • more substance abuse
  • more likely to be hypersexual (assault skewed their perspective of healthy sexual relationships)
77
Q

How does the prevalence of rape myths contribute to rape?

A

“she asked for it by the way she was dressed” and “because she invited me to her place”

people who commit rape believe these things to be true

78
Q

How does gender role stereotyping contribute to rape?

A

encourages male dominance, aggression, and competition

  • hypermasculinity
  • in U.S., we see higher rates of individuals who would be accused of sexual assault to be seen in groups associated with hypermasculinity (ie. collegiate and professional athletes, military, fraternities)
79
Q

When is sexual activity generally the highest?

A

in young adulthood

  • modest decline over time
80
Q

What can offset the fact that sexual activity is generally the highest in young adulthood?

A

length of relationship can change this

ie. individuals in a new relationship are more likely to be engaging in higher sexual activity

81
Q

What is the frequency of sexual intercourse associated with?

A

associated with emotional, sexual, and relationship satisfaction, as well as overall happiness

for most individuals, how often they have sex is based on how happy and satisfied they are with the relationship

+ FMST 210 (17 decks)

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