Chapter 12 - Development Over The Lifespan

Question 1

What is cross sectional design in research? How does it compare to longitudinal design?

Answer 1

Cross sectional design is observing multiple groups or multiple diverse subjects of interest at one point in time simultaneously while longitudinal design collects data from a set of subjects over a prolonged period of time to track development.

Question 2

What is sequential design?

Answer 2

Sequential design is the design that combines different practices from both cross-sectional and longitudinal design. It involves studying large groups of subjects from very different backgrounds (as in cross-sectional) for a long period of time (as in longitudinal). This practice is considered very complex as it requires a lot of resource as well as time, and analyzing data can be complex from the multitude of variables.

Question 3

What is the path from zygote, embyro, to fetus?

Answer 3

The initial stage when sperm fertilizes an egg is considered to be a zygote. For about 10-14 days the zygote’s cells will divide. Past the 14 days (averagely) the zygote has grown enough to be considered an embryo. It will develop an umbilical cord as well as begin to develop facial features and specialized organs. At 9 weeks after conception, it will become a fetus where the organs continue to develop and the muscles become stronger.

Question 4

What are XX and XY chromosomes? What do they indicate, and how are they related to the TDF gene?

Answer 4

The 23rd pair of chromosomes in a set, it determines the sex of the child. XX being female, XY being male. At default, zygotes are predetermined to be female, however the presence of a Y chromosome instead of X chromosome (via 50/50 mutation) in an set will trigger the development and release of male hormones and the TDF gene which is responsible for the initiation of male sex determination in mammals.

Question 5

What are androgens and teratogens?

Answer 5

An androgen, or male sex hormone, is defined as a substance capable of developing and maintaining masculine characteristics in reproductive tissues. A teratogen is a term for any agent that causes abnormalities during the development stages of pregnancy.

Question 6

What is fetal alcohol syndrome?

Answer 6

Fetal alcohol syndrome is a teratogen (a factor inhibiting regular embryonic development).

Question 7

What are the five reflexes common in newborns?

Answer 7

1. Rooting – everytime you touch a baby’s cheek, it will turn its head to which side is touched
2. Sucking – sucking as in breastfeeding
3. Grasping – if you put something in a baby’s hand, it should grasp it
4. Moro – if a baby falls backwards, it will fling it’s arms out
5. Babinski – if you stroke the baby’s foot, it will spread its toes in a specific pattern

Question 8

What is preferential looking procedure in infants?

Answer 8

The ability to understand what a baby prefers based on the amount of time the baby looks at it. An observation made that babies were more likely to prefer looking at shapes and patterns that resembled faces.

Question 9

What is are the cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles?

Answer 9

The cephalocaudal principle is the idea that the head develops first before the rest of the body. The proximodistal is the idea that the insides of the body grow first before the exterior.

Question 10

Who was Jean Piaget? What did representation thinking methods in kids did he believe in?

Answer 10

A researcher who focused on cognitive development. He focused on the stages of development and how kids believe mental representations. Schema creation, assimilation, and accomodation.

Question 11

What do the steps of schema creation, assimilation, and accommodation mean?

Answer 11

1. Schema creation – very crude mental categories that children use. The creation of a new concept
2. Assimilation – when you add something new to an existing schema
3. Accommodation – when a new experience requires that the schema be changed to fit another type of idea that will fit in the schema

Question 12

What are Jean Piaget’s four stages of development?

Answer 12

1. Sensorimotor stage – ages 0-2. At the beginning of this age, Piaget believed that kids lacked the idea of object permanence.
2. Pre-operational stage – ages 2-7. At two, many children finally have the ability to talk. They are able to represent the word conceptually by words. Theory of mind develops around the middle of the pre-operational stage (age ~4).
3. Concrete-operational stage – ages 7-12. Around this age, the idea of conservation soon develops.
4. Formal operation – ages 12+. This is when kids are the most able to think properly.

Question 13

What is object permanence?

Answer 13

The idea that objects that leave the field of view still continue to exist. A child lacking object permanence would believe an item to their view to simply not exist anymore.

Question 14

What is egocentrism?

Answer 14

Related to theory of mind, the understanding is that other people have different beliefs and desires than you. Egocentrism is known to be the lack of theory of mind.

Question 15

What was Lev Vygotsky’s theory?

Answer 15

Vygotsky’s theory was based around the zone of proximal development. Everything that a child can do with help. For example, a child may be able to figure out a 10-piece jigsaw puzzle, however he could only complete a 20 piece with help.

Question 16

What effect do information processing approaches have on learning?

Answer 16

Information processing approaches tend to emphasize the learning line in which children develop at. Learning cannot be thought to be a multi-step program but a gradual development.

Question 17

What is theory of mind?

Answer 17

Theory of mind, the understanding is that other people have different beliefs and desires than you. Children around 4 tend to develop theory of mind but those affected with autism may experience a delay in this development. Connected to egocentrism, egocentrism is known to be the lack of theory of mind.

Question 18

What is false belief task?

Answer 18

Similar to egocentrism, the false belief task is an exercise/example that demonstrates the inability for children to think in the perspectives of other people.

Question 19

What is emotion regulation?

Answer 19

Emotion regulation is the basis of a theory that wherever you go in the world, there are 6 consistent emotions that exist in each unique culture. Happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger, and disgust.

Question 20

What is temperament and what are the types?

Answer 20

Temperament is an emotional style that happens to be strongly genetically influenced. There are three types (examples in infant behaviour):
1. Easy (babies that are peaceful and sleep calmly)
2. Difficult (babies with erratic sleep schedules and rowdy)
3. Slow to warm up (babies that are calmly negative but over time will adjust)

Question 21

What did Erik Erikson believe in?

Answer 21

Erik Erikson thought there were eight different stages of developments with two pathways for each stage. 16 terms inspired by Freud’s stages. If you go down the “bad” path in one it does increase your chances to follow suit.

Question 22

Trust vs Mistrust

Answer 22

Ages 0-1. The idea being “can I trust the world?” “Is the world going to be responsive to my needs?” “If I cry, will my mom be there for me?”

Question 23

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

Answer 23

Ages 1-2. When kids are able to do some things on their own. Are they able to be a controlled and self-autonomous individual? If parents are too strict or lenient, it can result in some issues at this stage.

Question 24

Initiative vs Guilt

Answer 24

Ages 3-5. When children are in school or put in social situations, are kids able to reach out and participate with their peers or are they too worried of doing things incorrectly which may keep them in?

Question 25

Industry vs Inferiority

Answer 25

Ages 6-12. When schooling becomes more serious, can you get good at it? Are you able to find things that you’re good at? If not, you may struggle with a sense of inferiority.

Question 26

Identity vs Role Confusion

Answer 26

Ages 12-20. You start to struggle with your identity. What kind of person are you going to be? If you are able to develop a clear sense of identity, you are able to go down a good path.

Question 27

Intimacy vs Isolation

Answer 27

Ages 20-40. Once you start dating, are you able to settle down with somebody else and form intimate connections? It can be thought of as more broadly in platonic matters as well.

Question 28

Generativity vs Stagnation

Answer 28

Ages 40-65. Are you able to develop in life or become a member of community?

Question 29

Integrity vs Despair

Answer 29

Ages 65+. When you look back over your life, do you have a sense of pride and fulfillment? Are you happy with where your life has ended you up at?

Question 30

What is imprinting?

Answer 30

Sudden pre-programmed intense attachment that develops between the newborn and the parent (for most cases) in the 1-2 days after birth.

Question 31

What is attachment and what are its phases?

Answer 31

Refers the strong emotional bond between the parent figure and the infant. There are three phases of attachment.
1. Indiscriminate, where infants positively respond to everyone they encounter. Roughly the first 3 months.
2. Discriminate, where a bias begins to develop towards whoever they see more often like family members or caregivers, however you still feel comfortable in any environments.
3. Specific, being “extra discriminate” which causes them to become more attached to close figures, however it also results in a stranger anxiety as specific attachment. Close figures often become a safe-zone and they also develop separation anxiety.

Question 32

Who was Harry Harlow?

Answer 32

A researcher who developed a test discerning the preferred attachment style of a baby monkey. A cold cage with a bottle of milk or a stuffed animal. Often the stuffed animal was chosen as warmth seems to be a strong factor in infant attachment.

Question 33

What is contact comfort?

Answer 33

Contact comfort is a term that refers to the sense of ease that an infant experiences when they are in physical contact with their mother or other parental figure.

Question 34

What are stranger and separation anxieties?

Answer 34

Stranger anxiety is when an individual is exposed to an individual whom they do not know and responds in an anxious manner. It often comes hand-in-hand with separation anxiety in certain situations. Separation anxiety is when an individual (often an infant) experiences separation from a trusted figure (often a mother).

Question 35

Who was Mary Ainsworth and what did she experiment with?

Answer 35

A researcher who developed the strange situation test. An infant is placed with their mother for a period of time, then the mother leaves, and the infant will be placed with a stranger. She will return after a period of time. The behaviour of the child will determine the attachment type.

Question 36

What is Ainsworth’s model of children’s attachment styles?

Answer 36

The model of children’s attachment styles determined by two factors following the strange situation test are:
1. Secure. Sad when the mother leaves and happy when the mom comes back.
2. Resistant. Very sad when the mother leaves and still unhappy when the mom comes back.
3. Avoidant. Indifferent when the mom leaves and when she returns.
4. Disoriented. Behaviour is unclear when the mother leaves and when she returns.

Question 37

What is the two-dimensional model of adult attachment styles?

Answer 37

Results that can be found by levels of two factors. They are categorized by two ranges: Anxiety and avoidance.
Secure results in a low rate of both anxiety and avoidance.
Preoccupied results in a high rate of anxiety but a low rate in avoidance.
Dismissive results in a low rate of anxiety but a high rate in avoidance.
Fearful results in a high rate of both anxiety and avoidance.

Question 38

What is isolation?

Answer 38

The practice or experience of a deficit in social stimulus, often known to be correlated with neglect or abandonment. Usually results in avoidant or dismissive attachment styles.

Question 39

What is daycare’s effect on attachment styles?

Answer 39

The best evidence indicates that there are no long-term differences in attachment styles following children in daycare.

Question 40

What is divorce?

Answer 40

The process of separation between two married individuals. It is seen as exceptionally emotionally strenuous for children if the couple are parents.

Question 41

What are parenting styles?

Answer 41

Described by Diana Baumrind, there is a two-dimensional model of parenting styles characterized by ranges emotional and disciplinary levels.
1. Authoritative - Warm and restrictive
2. Authoritarian - Hostile and restrictive
3. Indulgent - Warm and permissive
4. Neglectful - Hostile and permissive

Question 42

What is gender identity and constancy?

Answer 42

Gender identity is a child’s sense of personal societal gender roles usually developed at an early age. One’s sense of one’s own gender.
Gender constancy is the idea many children have at 6 or 7 that insists on the permanent role of gender identity in one’s life. A belief that kids form that male-ness or female-ness are permanent features of a person.

Question 43

What is the difference between sex-role stereotypes and sex typing?

Answer 43

Sex-role stereotypes are the stereotypes society imposes upon individuals of each sex. What role each sex should play in society. Sex typing is the act of treating individuals differently based on what sex they are which is relative to preferential treatment. Relative to socialization.

Question 44

Who was Lawrence Kohlberg?

Answer 44

A researcher who looked at how children’s moral judgements changed over time. He was less interested in the result of a moral question but rather the motivations behind their choices. Children’s answers happened to change over time due to certain levels.

Question 45

What is Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

Answer 45

Pre-conventional morality: The individual is more interested in how the choice affects themselves. If they get punished, bad action. If they get rewarded, good action.
Conventional morality: Based on the norms of society, if the decision portrays you as a better person it is a better action compared to a bad action which would pose you as a worse person. Considered a blind following of society’s expectations and norms.
Post-conventional morality: You come to the realization that sometimes society can be wrong. To not blindly trust the conventions of people around you. When you think of principles such as human rights, fairness, and justice.

Question 46

What is adolescence and puberty?

Answer 46

Puberty is the physiological maturation while adolescence is considered to be the more mental maturation. The distinction between primary and secondary sex characteristics is that primary sex characteristics are to be more physical factors such as genitalia while secondary sex characteristics would be muscle mass in males and hip structure in females.

Question 47

What is adolescent brain development?

Answer 47

The rate in which the brain develops during adolescence, which is minutely delayed from puberty. Frontal lobe development does take somewhat longer which may result in the delay of mental maturity/adolescence.

Question 48

What is adolescent egocentrism?

Answer 48

Thinking that everything that happens to you is important and unique. One part of this is having a personal fable, dramatizing life events which can be correlated with the novelty of community norms. Things like a first love, first breakup, or graduation. Imaginary audience would be the idea that you are constantly being watched and that your behaviour is constantly being watched and judged.

Question 49

What is postformal thought?

Answer 49

A stage of development that occurs in early adulthood in which a person gains the ability to synthesize opposing ideas or feelings into a more complete understanding. In postformal thought, a person understands that there are contradictions that exist in the world.

Question 50

What is the effect of age on IQ/cognitive ability?

Answer 50

For processing speed, it happens to increase up around the mid 20s, then will steadily decline over time.
For crystallized intelligence, it happens to increase and will usually stay at a consistent value over time as you age.
For fluid intelligence, it happens to increase at a slower pace until it hits a peak usually in the mid to late 20s, then will decrease from there.

Question 51

What are the stages of identity status?

Answer 51

1. Diffusion - you put off the topic of your identity.
2. Foreclosure - whatever your parents decided for you, you’ll stick with that.
3. Moratorium - a type of crisis. You worry that the identity your parents had chosen for you was not enough.
4. Achievement - you achieve your true identity and understand what you are happy with and who you are.

Question 52

What is marriage?

Answer 52

A legal process that officiates more than one individual in a partnership. In two-person marriages, it often does not matter what factor same or different sex marriages have in the family when it comes to statistics of home and family life. The weight of evidence tends to show that married couples are happier, healthier, and they live longer.

Question 53

What is the marital satisfaction U-curve?

Answer 53

Tthe satisfaction of each marriage comes in an average “U curve for marital satisfaction”. Usually it comes in the honeymoon stage, then often children come around which produces stress, and once they are old enough to be out of the house marriage satisfaction will go back up. The two happiest times in life will be your 20s, and in old age.

Question 54

What is cohabitation?

Answer 54

Cohabitation is the act of living with another individual before marriage.

Question 55

What is the link between neuroticism and midlife crises?

Answer 55

Neuroticism is the tendency to become more sensitive to negative emotions. In a midlife crisis, individuals will be exposed to a higher number of stressors and fluctuations in daily life which may increase instability, hence the “crisis”.

Question 56

What is the U-curve for life satisfaction/happiness?

Answer 56

The study that the points of average satisfaction in youth and old age will be the highest compared to the point of average satisfaction around the middle age. Some studies show that happiness is even higher in old age than it is in youth.

Question 57

What is retirement?

Answer 57

The end of a working period in an individual’s life. Often around the 60s.

Question 58

What are the five stages of grief?

Answer 58

Denial: A refusal to accept that often negative results are real.
Anger: Dwelling on the chances, often believe it is unfair.
Bargaining: Negotiating for the circumstances to change, often religious.
Depression: Grieving.
Acceptance: Understanding that the circumstances cannot be negotiated, and accepting.