Chapter 12

Question 1

Approaches to Studying Personality
- Idiographic approach
- Nomothetic approach

Answer 1

Idiographic approach
- Detailed description of individuals and their unique traits
- B.F Skinner
Nomothetic approach
- Examines personality in large groups of people

Question 2

The Trait Perspective

Answer 2

• focuses on identifying consistent characteristics, or traits, that describe a person’s behavior, like being shy or outgoing.
  -Allport and Odbert started with 18,000 words to describe traits, later narrowed down using factor analysis.
  -This method groups similar traits together, helping to identify main personality traits, like those in the Big Five (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism).

Question 3

The Five Factor Model by McCrae and Costa identifies five core personality traits:

OCEAN

Answer 3

Openness – Imagination, creativity, and willingness to try new things.

Conscientiousness – Organization, reliability, and attention to detail.

Extraversion – Sociability, enthusiasm, and assertiveness.

Agreeableness – Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.

Neuroticism – Tendency towards emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.

Question 4

Temperament

Answer 4

Temperament, which includes traits like activity level and mood, appears at birth and can predict adult traits like Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness.

Question 5

Personality Traits over the Lifespan

Answer 5

Generally, traits tend to improve through adulthood, although there are exceptions:

Social Dominance (an aspect of extraversion) stays steady after age 40.
Conscientiousness typically increases only after college years.
Openness to Experience rises through the college years, stays stable during midlife, then declines in older age.

Question 6

What trait would she be deficient on if someone was unreliable, lazy, and spontaneous?
-If someone was insecure and prone to anxiety, what trait would he (likely) be high on

Answer 6

If someone is unreliable, lazy, and spontaneous, she would likely be low on Conscientiousness.
If someone is insecure and prone to anxiety, he would likely be high on Neuroticism.

Question 7

Added Personality Factor in HEXACO Model

Answer 7

The HEXACO model expands the Big Five by adding Honesty-Humility .

This trait reflects tendencies toward sincerity, fairness, and modesty, and people low in this trait may be manipulative or self-serving.

Question 8

The Dark Triad Traits

Answer 8

three traits often linked to socially harmful behavior:
Machiavellianism – A tendency to be manipulative, strategic, and focused on self-interest and personal gain.
Psychopathy – Characterized by a lack of empathy, impulsivity, and antisocial or ruthless behavior.
Narcissism – Excessive self-centeredness, grandiosity, and a deep need for admiration and attention.

Question 9

States are influenced by different situational factors, which include:

Answer 9

Locations (where we are)
Associations (who we’re with)
Activities (what we’re doing)
Subjective States (our inner mood or feelings)

Question 10

How Behaviorists Explain Personality:

Answer 10

Behaviorists see personality as a result of learned behaviors shaped by reinforcement and punishment in the environment. According to behaviorism, personality is not internal but is built through observable, conditioned responses to external stimuli.

Question 11

Reciprocal Determinism:

Answer 11

Reciprocal determinism is a concept from psychologist Albert Bandura, suggesting that behavior, personal factors (like thoughts and emotions), and the environment all influence each other in a dynamic, ongoing cycle. For instance, our behavior can affect our environment, which in turn can shape our thoughts and future behavior.

Question 12

Serotonin Transporter Genes and Personality

Answer 12

Certain genes code for brain chemicals like serotonin, which relate to personality traits.
Serotonin transporter gene variations impact how individuals process emotional information:
People with two copies of the long version of this gene tend to focus on positive images and avoid negative ones.
People with the short version of the gene don’t have this positivity bias.

Question 13

How Scientists Study Genes and Personality

Answer 13

Researchers use Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) to link specific genes with personality traits. GWAS scans the entire genome to identify associations between gene variants and behaviors, helping to understand the genetic basis of personality.

Question 14

-What is an evolutionary advantage for being neurotic?
-What is an evolutionary advantage for being high on openness to experience?
-What is an evolutionary advantage for being low on conscientiousness?

Answer 14

Neuroticism – Increases vigilance to threats, helping avoid danger.
Openness – Encourages creativity and adaptability, aiding survival in changing environments.
Low Conscientiousness – Allows flexibility and spontaneity, useful in unpredictable situations.

Question 15

The Brain and Personality (Historical Models)

Answer 15

Four Humours (400 BC): Early theory linking bodily fluids to personality.
Phrenology (1700s): Incorrect theory linking skull shape to traits.
Extraversion and Arousal (1967): Linked extraversion to specific brain regions.
Approach/Inhibition Model (1991): Proposed personality is influenced by brain systems driving motivation and self-regulation.

Question 16

Contemporary Research: Brain Imaging and Personality

Recent research shows that self-ratings of Big Five personality traits are linked to the volume of specific brain regions:

Answer 16

Conscientiousness: correlated with the middle frontal gyrus—larger size in this area is associated with higher conscientiousness.

Extraversion: correlated with the medial orbitofrontal cortex—larger volume in this region is linked to higher extraversion.

This suggests that certain brain regions’ size can be positively correlated with specific personality traits, providing insight into the biological basis of personality.

Question 17

Brain Areas Related to the Big Five

Answer 17

Openness: Default mode network (DMN)
Conscientiousness: Middle frontal gyrus
Extraversion: Medial orbitofrontal cortex
Agreeableness: Posterior cingulate cortex
Neuroticism: Amygdala

Question 18

Behavioral Activation System (BAS) and Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)

Answer 18

BAS is linked to approach behavior and sensitivity to rewards, driving individuals toward positive goals.
BIS is linked to avoidance behavior and sensitivity to punishment, causing caution in response to potential threats.

Question 19

The psychodynamic approach, pioneered by Sigmund Freud in the 1800s, emphasizes the role of unconscious processes in shaping personality. Key points include:

Answer 19

Unconscious Influences: Behavior is largely influenced by unconscious impulses and drives that we’re not fully aware of.
Early Childhood Development: Personality is believed to form during early childhood based on experiences and relationships.
Mental Representations: Early experiences create mental images or representations that shape our interactions and behaviors throughout life.
Defense Mechanisms: To manage inner conflicts between unconscious drives and conscious awareness, the mind uses defense mechanisms (e.g., repression, denial) to protect against anxiety and maintain psychological stability.

Question 20

Freudian Slip

Answer 20

A Freudian slip is an unintentional error in speech or action that is thought to reveal an unconscious thought, desire, or feeling. Freud believed these slips expose hidden impulses or unresolved conflicts within the unconscious mind.

Question 21

Three Components of Personality in Freudian Theory

According to Freud, personality consists of three parts:

Answer 21

Ego: The rational part that balances the demands of the id with reality, operating on the reality principle to make practical decisions. - Consious

Id: The instinctual, impulsive part driven by basic desires and operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification.

Superego: The moral component, representing internalized societal rules and ideals, striving for perfection and ethical behavior.

Question 22

Defense Mechanisms

Answer 22

• When the id and superego are in conflict, the ego deals with this tension through defence
  mechanisms
• Methods used by the ego to prevent unconscious anxiety of threatening thoughts from
  entering consciousness

Question 23

Types of Defence Mechanisms

Answer 23

Repression: the selective, involuntary pushing or threatening or upsetting info into the unconscious
2. Projection: a person’s unacceptable or threatening feelings being repressed and then attributed to someone else. “You have an anger problem not me”.
3. Displacement: When people direct their emotions (especially anger) toward things,
animals or other people that are not the real object of their feelings. Taking anger out on
someone who isn’t the source. Might be really angry, but they take out on the anger on
someone who is not the initial source of their anger.
4. Regression: when a person reverts to a previous phase of psychological development
5. Denial: when people refuse to admit something unpleasant is happening, that they have a
problem, or that they are feeling a forbidden emotion

Question 24

Which component of personality operates on the pleasure principle?
Which component of personality operates on the reality principle?

Answer 24

Pleasure Principle

The Id operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of desires.

Reality Principle

The Ego operates on the reality principle, balancing the demands of the id with practicality and social norms.

Question 25

Five Stages of Psychosexual Development

According to Freud, the five stages are:

Answer 25

Oral (0–1 years): Pleasure centers on the mouth (e.g., sucking, biting).
Anal (1–3 years): Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder control.
Phallic (3–6 years): Focus on the genital area; includes Oedipus/Electra complex.
Latency (6–puberty): Sexual impulses are repressed; focus on social development.
Genital (puberty onward): Sexual impulses reawaken and mature, directed toward adult sexuality.

Question 26

Projective Tests

Answer 26

Personality tests in which ambiguous images are presented to an individual to elicit
responses that reflect unconscious desires to conflicts
- The Rorschach Inkblot Test : verbal responses to inkblot picture
- The Thematic Apperception Test: asked to tell a story
about what is happening in the
image. The responses are believed to
give important insights into an individual’s personality.
- Figure Drawing as a Projective Test: somewhat related to artistic ability and intelligence, but not personality

Question 27

Oedipus Complex

Answer 27

Freud’s concept that children experience unconscious desires for the opposite-sex parent and feelings of rivalry toward the same-sex parent, typically occurring in the phallic stage of development.

Question 28

Alternatives to the Psychodynamic Approach

Jungian Theory (Carl Jung)

Answer 28

Collective Unconscious: Jung proposed that humans share universal memories and experiences stored in the collective unconscious, represented by recurring symbols, stories, and images known as archetypes.
Archetypes: Universal symbols (like the Hero, Mother, and Shadow) found across myths, art, stories, and dreams, reflecting common human experiences.

Question 29

Inferiority Complex:

Answer 29

Adler’s idea that feelings of helplessness or powerlessness in childhood lead to a struggle with inferiority, motivating people to seek power or success.