Chapter 11 : Theories of learning Flashcards
Define conditioning.
Conditioning is the process of learning associations between an environmental stimulus and a behavioral response.
Give an example of conditioning observed in everyday life.
Associating a smile with friendly behavior.
Name the two main types of conditioning.
Classical and operant conditioning.
Name the three main types of learning.
Conditioning (classical & operant), trial and error learning, and observational learning.
Define classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning, also called respondent conditioning, refers to a type of learning that occurs through repeated association of two or more different stimuli. Learning is only said to have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce.
Who was the physiologist that first described classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov.
Define a stimulus.
A stimulus is any object or event that produces a response in an organism.
Define a response.
A response is a reaction by an organism produced by a stimulus.
True or False.
In Pavlov’s experiment, the response of salivating due to the food is a type of learning.
False. Salivation is an involuntary reflex response that is controlled by the autonomic division of the PNS.
Briefly describe classical conditioning in Pavlov’s experiment.
In Pavlov’s experiment, the dogs initially salivated due to the presence of food. But through repeated association of the food with the sound of a ringing bell, the dogs later started to salivate at the sound of the bell.
Name the four key elements of classical conditioning.
Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response.
Define the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
The UCS refers to any stimulus that consistently produces a naturally occurring, automatic response.
Define the unconditioned response (UCR).
The UCR refers to the response that occurs automatically after the presence of the UCS. It is a reflexive involuntary response that is predictably caused by the UCS.
Define the conditioned stimulus (CS).
The CS refers to the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning, but through repeated association with the UCS, it produces a response that is similar to the one caused by the UCS.
Define the conditioned response (CR).
The CR is the learned response that is produced by the CS, and occurs after the CS has been repeatedly associated with the UCS.
Name examples of the four elements of classical conditioning in Pavlov’s experiment.
NS/CS - The ringing sound of the bell
UCS - The food
UCR - Salivation due to the presence of food
CR- Salivation due to the presence of the bell
True or False.
The CR is very similar to the UCR, but it is only triggered by the presence of the CS alone.
True.
Define association.
Association is the process of pairing or linking of one stimulus with another, that is a stimulus that does not produce an automatic response with a stimulus that does produce an automatic response.
Define neutral stimulus.
The neutral stimulus is any stimulus that does not normally produce a predictable response.
True or False.
NS = CS
True.
Name the five key processes in classical conditioning.
Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination.
Define acquisition.
Acquisition is the overall process during which an organism learns to associate the CS with the UCS.
How to ensure that acquisition is rapid and effective?
- The presentation of the CS and the UCS should occur close together in time.
- … in the same sequence.
- The CS should remain present until the UCS is presented.
When is it considered to be the end of the acquisition stage?
When the CS alone produces the CR.
True or False.
The rate of learning at the early stages of acquisition is often very fast.
True.
True or False.
A conditioned stimulus-response association is permanent.
False.
Define extinction.
Extinction is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR when the UCS is no longer presented.
When is extinction said to have occurred?
Extinction is said to have occurred when the CR no longer occurs following presentation of the CS.
True or False.
The extinction of a conditioned response is not always permanent.
True.
Define spontaneous recovery.
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the CR when the CS is presented following a rest period (when no CS is presented) after the CR appears to have been extinguished.
What are the characteristics of spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
- Does not always occur, and when it does, it is often short lived.
- The CR is weaker than it was originally in the acquisition stage.
Define stimulus generalization.
Stimulus generalization is the tendency for another stimulus that is similar to the original CS to produce a response that is similar, but not necessarily identical to the CR.
True or False.
In stimulus generalization, the greater the similarity between stimuli, the greater the possibility that generalization will occur.
True.
Provide an example of stimulus generalization.
In Pavlov’s experiment, the dogs could also salivate at the sound of a front doorbell, which is similar to the original ringing sound of the bell.
True or False.
Stimulus generalization usually triggers the CR at a reduced level.
True.
Define stimulus discrimination.
Stimulus discrimination occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, and not to any other stimulus that is similar to the CS.
Provide an example of stimulus discrimination.
An individual who has a fear of a particular breed of dog does not flinch at the sight of other breed of dogs.
Why are conditioned responses considered reflexive?
Because they are automatic, involuntary and usually occur without much conscious thought or awareness.
Identify the four elements of classical conditioning.
Mary went to the dentist to get her tooth drilled. She was afraid of getting her tooth drilled and cringed at the thought of it. Now, she cringes at the sound of a dentist drill.
UCS - The drilling of the tooth
UCR - Cringing due to fear of tooth being drilled
CS - The sound of the dentist drill
CR - Cringing due to fear of the sound of the dentist drill
Define a conditioned emotional response.
An emotional reaction that usually occurs when the autonomic nervous system produces a response to a stimulus that did not previously trigger that response.
Who conducted the “Little Albert” experiment?
John B Watson.
Describe the process of classical conditioning in the “Little Albert” experiment.
Little Albert was conditioned to associate a white rat (CS) with loud noises (UCS), which produced a fear response due to the white rat (CR).
What ethical conducts were breached in the “Little Albert” experiment?
Informed consent, withdrawal right, deception.
Name the three types of therapeutic techniques to extinguish a conditioned emotional response.
Graduated exposure, flooding and aversion therapy.
Provide an example for the process of graduated exposure.
For an individual with a phobia of dogs, then can first start out with looking at pictures of dogs, then watching a video of a dog in motion, then being in the same room as the dog, and then lastly petting the dog.
Define graduated exposure.
Graduated exposure involves presenting successive approximations of the CS, until the CS itself does not produce the conditioned response.
It essentially involves progressively exposing the client to increasingly similar stimuli that produced the conditioned response requiring extinction, and ultimately to the CS itself.
Define flooding.
Flooding involves bringing the client into direct contact with the fear or anxiety producing stimulus, and keeping them in contact until the conditioned response has been extinguished.
Define aversion therapy.
Aversion therapy is a form of behavior therapy that applies classical conditioning processes to discourage an undesirable behavior by associating it with an unpleasant stimulus, such as a feeling of disgust, pain or nausea.
Provide an example of aversion therapy.
To stop nail biting, your fingernails may be painted with a foul-tasting substance.
State the limitations of aversion therapy.
- Not necessarily permanent.
- The learned aversion often fails to generalize to situations other than those under which learning took place.
What is trial and error learning?
Trial and error learning involves learning by trying alternative possibilities until the desired outcome is achieved. Once learned, the behavior is performed more quickly and with fewer errors.
Provide an example of trial and error learning.
When problem solving, we tend to try out different possible solutions until we find one that works.
Name the psychologist that conducted research on trial and error learning.
Edward Thorndike.
Define operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a type of learning whereby the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future.
What does the operant conditioning theory propose?
The theory proposes that organisms tend to repeat behavior that has desirable consequences, or that it will enable it to avoid undesirable consequences. Furthermore, organisms tend to avoid behavior that have undesirable consequences.
Define an operant.
An operant is any response that acts on the environment to produce a consequence.
True or False.
A stimulus is not essential for an operant to occur.
True.
Name the four main elements of trial and error learning.
Motivation, exploration, correct/incorrect responses and reward for the correct response.
True or False.
Operant conditioning involves a voluntary response.
True.
Name the three parts (in order) of the three-phase model of operant conditioning.
Discriminative stimulus, response and consequence.
Define the three main parts of the three-phase model of operant conditioning.
S^D - The discriminative stimulus is the stimulus that precedes a particular response, signals the probable consequence of the response and therefore influences the occurrence of the response.
R- The response is the voluntary behavior that occurs at the presence of the discriminative stimulus.
C- The environmental event that occurs immediately after the response, and determines whether or not the response will occur again.
Provide an example for the three-phase model of operant conditioning.
Your mobile phone ring tone, which signals the response of pressing the receive button to achieve the desirable consequence of chatting with a friend.
True or False.
Any behavior that is followed by a consequence will change in strength and frequency, depending on the nature of the consequence.
True.
True or False.
The nature of the consequence can often depend on the individual .
True.
Name the experimenter responsible for operant conditioning.
B.F Skinner.
Name the two key elements of operant conditioning.
Reinforcements and punishments.
Define reinforcement.
Reinforcement is said to have occurred when a stimulus increases or strengthen the likelihood of a response that follows.
Define reinforcer.
A reinforcer is the stimulus that increases or strengthens the likelihood of a response that follows.
What is an essential feature of reinforcement?
Reinforcement is only used after the correct response has been made.
What are the two types of reinforcement?
Positive and negative reinforcement.
Define positive reinforcement, and provide an example.
Positive reinforcement is said to have occurred when a stimulus increases the likelihood of a response that follows by providing a desirable consequence.
Receiving a high mark for an exam.
Define negative reinforcement, and provide an example.
Negative reinforcement is said to have occurred when an unpleasant stimulus is removed or avoided, and thus increases the likelihood of a response that follows.
Bringing an umbrella to avoid getting wet.
What is the key difference between positive and negative reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement involves providing a satisfying consequence, whereas negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus.
Define punishment.
Punishment involves the delivery of an unpleasant stimulus, or the removal of a pleasant stimulus following a response to decrease the likelihood of a response that follows.
What are the two types of punishment?
Positive and negative punishment.
What is the main difference between punishment and negative reinforcer?
Punishment is given or applied, whereas negative reinforcer is avoided.
Define positive punishment, and provide an example.
Positive punishment involves the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a response occurring again.
Detention for being late.
Define negative punishment, and provide an example.
Negative punishment involves the removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a response occurring again.
No pocket money for the week.
What is the other term for negative punishment?
Response cost.
Name the key factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment.
Order of presentation, timing and appropriateness.
Briefly explain the key factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment.
Order of presentation, the reinforcement or punishment must be presented after the response, never before.
Timing, … must be presented immediately after the response has been made..
Appropriateness, a stimulus must be desirable or unpleasant for the recipient.
Define schedules of reinforcement.
A schedule of reinforcement is a program for giving reinforcement, that is the frequency and manner in which the desired response is reinforced.
Name the two main types of schedules of reinforcement.
Continuous and partial reinforcement.
Define continuous reinforcement.
Continuous reinforcement involves reinforcing every correct response after it occurs.
True or False.
Continuous reinforcement is usually used at the early stages of learning.
True.
Define partial reinforcement.
Partial reinforcement involves reinforcing some correct responses but not all of them.
True or False.
Responses that are maintained through partial reinforcement are stronger and less likely to weaken.
True.
Name the four main types of partial reinforcement.
Fixed-interval, fixed-ratio, variable-interval and variable-ratio.
Define fixed-ratio schedule.
When the reinforcer is given after a set, unvarying number of desired responses have been made.
For example, payment based solely on commission, such as $20 for every 100 newspaper sold.
Define variable-ratio schedule.
When the reinforcer is given after a unpredictable number of desired responses.
For example, gambling.
Define fixed-interval schedule.
When the reinforcer is given after a specific period has elapsed since the last reinforcer, provided that the correct response was made.
For example, baking a cake without a timer and checking the oven every 5 minutes.
Define variable-interval schedule.
When the reinforcer is given after irregular/unpredictable periods have passed, provided that the correct response was made.
For example, fishing, and checking the line at an average of every 2 minutes.
Define acquisition in operant conditioning.
Acquisition is the establishment of the response with the reinforcement.
Define extinction in operant conditioning.
Extinction is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of the conditioned response following consistent non-reinforcement of the response.
True or False.
Extinction is less likely to occur when partial reinforcement is used.
True.
Why is extinction is less likely to occur when partial reinforcement is used?
Because of the uncertainty of the reinforcement.
Define spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning.
Spontaneous recovery refers to the reappearance of the conditioned response after a period of time when the reinforcement is not presented.
True or False.
A spontaneously recovered response is often stronger after a lengthy period compared to when it occurs soon after extinction.
True.
Define stimulus generalization in operant conditioning.
Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency to produce the correct response to a similar stimulus (but not necessarily identical) to the original stimulus that was presented when the conditioned response was reinforced.
What type of response does stimulus generalization usually produce?
A weaker response.
Provide an example of stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning.
The sound of a car backfiring may cause the athlete to generalize this sound to that of a pistol firing and start running.
Define stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning.
Stimulus generalization occurs when the organism makes the correct response to a stimulus and is reinforced, and does not respond to any other stimulus, no matter how similar.
Provide an example of stimulus discrimination in operant conditioning.
Sniffer dogs at airports are trained to only respond to illegal drugs.
What is shaping?
Shaping, also called method of successive approximation is a procedure in which a reinforcer is given for a response that successively approximates and ultimately leads to the desired response.
When is shaping used?
When the desired response has a low probability of occurring naturally.
Define token economy.
A token economy is a setting in which an individual receives a token or “reinforcer” for desired behavior. These tokens can then be exchanged for other reinforcers in the form of actual rewards.
Provide an example of a token economy.
A teacher giving out stickers that can later be exchanged for sweets.
State the similarities between classical and operant conditioning.
- Involves an acquisition process.
- The learned response may be extinguished.
- Extinction can be interrupted by spontaneous recovery.
- Both stimulus generalization and discrimination can occur.
- Both types of learning are achieved through repeated association of two events that follow each other closely in time.
State the differences between classical and operant conditioning.
- In OC, the consequence of a response is a vita component of the learning process, whereas in CC, the behavior produces no environmental consequence.
- CC produces a involuntary, automatic response, whereas OC can produce both voluntary and involuntary response.
- In OC, the learner is an active participant, whereas in CC, the learner is a passive participant.
- In OC, the response depends on the presentation of the UCS first, whereas in CC, the presentation of the reinforcer/punishment depends on the response occurring first.
- In CC, the association is made between the UCS and the CS, whereas in OC, the association is between the discriminative stimulus and the response.
Define observational learning.
Observational learning occurs when an individual uses a model’s action and the consequences of their actions to guide their own future actions.
True or False.
A model may be live or symbolic.
True.
Who was the psychologist responsible for the social learning theory?
Albert Bandura.
What does the social learning theory emphasize?
The social learning theory emphasizes on the importance of the environment or social context.
True or False.
Responses that are observed to be desirable and reinforcing are more likely to be modeled.
True.
True or False.
Classical and operant conditioning can occur indirectly by observing someone else’s behavior.
True.
Define vicarious conditioning.
In vicarious conditioning, an individual watches a model’s behavior being reinforced or punished, and then subsequently behaves in exactly the same way, or in a modified way, or refrains from the behavior as a result of what they have observed.
Compare vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment.
Vicarious reinforcement increases the likelihood of an observer behaving in a similar way to the model, whereas vicarious punishment decreases the likelihood of an observer behaving in a similar way to the model.
Name the five processes in observational learning.
Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement.
What characteristics increase the likelihood of an individual paying attention to a model?
- Higher status of the model
- Greater similarity between the observer and the model
- Greater attractiveness or success of the model
True or False.
Before reproduction can occur, we must have the ability to put into practice what has been observed.
True.
True or False.
Reinforcement influences the motivation to perform the learned behavior.
True.
