Chapter 1 : Research methods in Psychology Flashcards
Define Psychology.
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes in humans.
What is the difference between overt and covert behavior?
Overt behavior is clearly visible and directly observable and is more likely to be measured accurately. For example, walking.
Covert behavior is internal and hidden from view, and therefore cannot be directly observed, and is not easily measured. For example, feeling sad.
Define mental processes.
Mental processes generally refers to a person’s thoughts and feelings, which are personal and subjective and cannot be directly observed. For example, your perceptions and sensations, your emotions, your moods, etc.
Define behavior
Behavior refers to any externally expressed action made by a living person that can be directly observed. For example, walking, talking, singing, etc.
What is the general relationship between mental processes and behavior? Provide an example.
Mental processes and behavior are interrelated and often interact with each other. For example, you may feel mad at a person as you think that they have lied to you, as a result, you may behave very rudely towards this person.
Name the difference between a psychologists and a psychiatrist.
A psychiatrist needs to study up to 13+ years, while a psychologists needs to study for 6+years.
A psychiatrists can also prescribe medication and has the legal authority to hospitalize involuntarily individuals, while a psychologists cannot.
Name the areas of specialization in Psychology.
Clinical psychologists, clinical neurologists, organizational psychologists, sports psychologists, health psychologists, education and learning psychologists, community psychologists, forensic psychologists and counselling psychologists.
Define scientific (psychological) research.
Scientific research involves using an appropriate research method to collect data/information about a problem or topic of interest, and then organizing the data and drawing valid conclusions from it.
What happens when a scientific method is not used?
It will be difficult to reach a valid conclusion about a phenomenon, and observations or data are likely to be incorrectly interpreted.
Name the seven steps in psychological research.
- Identifying the research problem.
- Constructing a research hypothesis.
- Designing the method.
- Collecting the data.
- Analyzing the data.
- Interpreting the data.
- Reporting the research findings.
Define research hypothesis.
A research hypothesis is a testable prediction of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. It is essentially an educated guess on what the results of the research study will be.
Define objectivity.
Objectivity involves taking steps to prevent any personal factors from influencing any aspect of the research or its reporting. It requires that data to be recorded free of bias, prejudice and other personal factors that may distort the data.
What is raw data?
Raw data is data that has not been coded or summarized in a meaningful way.
Define conclusion.
A conclusion is a judgement being made on what the results of the investigation mean.
Why is it important to report any research findings?
It is the way the other researchers find out about research that has been conducted and the way scientific progress is achieved. It also enables the general public to benefit from the research findings and enables replication by other researchers interested in what was studied.
Define research method.
A research method is a particular way of conducting a research study to collect accurate and reliable information about behavior and mental processes.
Provide examples of research methods.
An experiment, a survey, a case study, etc.
Define an experiment.
An experiment is used test a cause-effect relationship between variables under controlled conditions.
Name the four different variables.
Independent variables, dependent variables, extraneous variables and confounding variables.
What is a variable?
A variable is any factor that can change or vary in amount or type over time. For example, sexual desire, alcoholic content, happiness, stress, etc.
Define independent variable.
An independent variable is the variable that is systematically manipulated, changed or varied in some way by the researcher to access its effect on the participant’s responses.
Define dependent variable.
The dependent variable is the variable that shows any effect of the independent variable.
What is the difference between the experimental and control condition in an experiment?
The experimental condition is where the independent variable is present, where in the control condition, the independent variable is absent.
What is the purpose of a control condition in an experiment?
The control condition provides a standard of comparison for the experimental condition in which the IV is present.
Why is a research hypothesis considered an educated guess?
Because it is based on existing knowledge and previous research findings.
Define an operational hypothesis.
An operational hypothesis is a research hypothesis that states how the variables being studied will be observed, measured and manipulated. This means that the IV and DV are stated in operationalized terms. It also states the population from which the sample was drawn.
Name the characteristics of an operational hypothesis.
- The IV and DV are stated in operationalized terms.
- The population from which the sample will be drawn is stated.
- It is testable.
- It is an educated guess.
- It is a precisely worded written statement.
- It is expressed clearly.
- It is written in a single statement.
- It is written in third person.
Define extraneous variables.
Extraneous variables are variables other than the IV that may cause a change in the DV, and therefore affecting the results in an unwanted way.
Why is the extraneous variable unwanted?
It is unwanted because it can make it difficult for the researcher to conclude that any change in the DV was due solely to the presence of the IV, and not some other variable.
How do researchers attempt to control extraneous variables?
Researchers try to identify any relevant extraneous variables before the experiment and attempt to control, eliminate or minimize then.
Define confounding variable.
A confounding variable is any variable other than the IV that has had an effect on the DV, making it difficult to determine which of the variables produced the change in the DV.
Name the similarity and the difference between an extraneous variable and a confounding variable.
Similarity
- Both variables cause unwanted problems for the researcher conducting the research study.
Differences
- A confounding variable produces measurable change in the DV, while the extraneous variable may or may not affect the DV.
Name the types of extraneous variable and potential confounding variables.
- Individual participant differences (participant variables)
- Placebo effects
- Order effects
- Experimenter effects
- Use of non-standardized instructions and procedures
Define individual participant differences.
Provide some examples.
The differences in personal characteristics and experiences of the individual participants in an experiment. For example, age, biological sex, personality, intelligence, mood, emotions, religion, cultural background, etc.
What is a placebo?
A placebo is a substitution for the real substance or treatment.
Define the placebo effect
The placebo effect occurs when there is a change in the responses of the participants due to their belief that they are receiving some kind of experimental treatment and they respond in accordance to that belief, rather than to the effects of the IV.
Which is the only group that experiences the placebo effect?
The experimental group.
Define the experimenter effect.
The experimenter effect occurs when there is a change in the responses of the participants due to the researchers/experimenter expectation, biases, or actions, rather than to the effect of the IV.
What is experimenter expectancy?
Experimenter expectancy involves cues or hints that the researcher provides about the responses participants should give in an experiment.
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when the researcher obtains results that they expect to obtain due to the cues that they provide, rather than to the effect of the IV.
Give a few examples of how an experimenter’s action can produce an experimenter effect.
The experimenter’s mannerism, facial expression, tone of voice, etc.
What is experimenter bias?
Experimenter bias are unintentional biases in the collection or treatment of data. For example, misreading, misperceiving, misinterpreting data or giving unintentional assistance to participants.
Define an order effect.
An order effect occurs when performance, as measured by the DV, is influenced by the specific order in which the tasks, treatments and conditions are presented, rather than the IV.
Name the two types of order effects.
Practice effects and carry-over effects.
What is the practice effect?
Practice effects are the influences on performance that arises from practicing a task. This can cause boredom or fatigue.
What is the carry-over effect?
Carry-over effects are the influences of a particular treatment or task on performance in a subsequent treatment or task that follows. For example, the effects of consuming alcohol can “carry over” to the next task.
What is one of the most common sources of confounding and extraneous variables?
Individual participant differences (participant variables)
Define participants.
Participants are the people used in the experiment or any other research study.
How do researchers attempt to minimize the influence of confounding and extraneous variables?
Researchers use selection and allocation procedures to ensure that the two groups of participants are as similar as possible in important personality characteristics that are relevant to the experiment.
What is sampling?
Sampling is the process of selecting participants for a research study.
Define a sample.
A sample is a group that is a subset or smaller portion of the larger group selected to be studied for research purposes.
Why is sampling important?
Because it is used to make inferences about the larger group from which the sample was drawn.
Define a population.
In psychological research, the population refers to the larger group from which a sample is drawn. For example, all VCE students, all patients at the hospital diagnosed with depression, all left-handed males.
Why doesn’t the researcher choose to study the population?
Because the population is way too large to be studied.
Why is it important that the sample is an accurate representative of the population?
Because the results obtained can be generalized to the population with certainty.
Name the 4 types of sampling procedures.
Convenience sampling, random sampling, stratified sampling, and random-stratified sampling.
Define convenience sampling.
Convenience sampling involves selecting participants who are readily available without any attempt of making the sample representative of the population.
Why does convenience sampling produce a biased sample?
Because only people present at that very time and location will have the chance of being selected as a participant.
Name the advantages and disadvantages of convenience sampling.
Advantages
- It is quick, easy and inexpensive
Disadvantages
- The results obtained can be misleading, and cannot be legitimately generalized to the population
When is convenience sampling often used?
Convenience sampling is used when researchers are studying aspects of human mental processes or behavior that is considered to be similar in all “normal” individuals.
Define random sampling.
Random sampling is a sampling procedure that ensures that every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected as a participant for the study and that the selection of one participant does not influence the selection or non-selection of another.
Name a few methods of achieving a random sample.
By tossing a coin, or using a lottery method or using computerized random number generators.
What is a biased sample?
A biased sample is achieved when everyone in the target population does not have an equal chance of being selected as a participant.
Define stratified sampling.
Stratified sampling involves dividing the target population into distinct strata or subgroups and then selecting a separate sample from each stratum in the same proportion as they occur in the target population.
Name some of the factors that can be used to divide the target population into different subgroups.
Age, income, sex, IQ score, etc.
Define random-stratified sampling.
Random-stratified sampling involves identifying all of the people within each subgroup and then selecting random samples of proportionate size from within each subgroup.
Name the advantages and disadvantages of using a random-stratified sampling procedure.
Advantages
- It can be assumed that the sample obtained is truly representative and unbiased.
Disadvantages
- Very time consuming and difficult to achieve
Why is the process of participant allocation important?
It is to ensure that any relevant personal characteristics are evenly distributed across the two groups.
Define random allocation.
In random allocation, every participant in the experiment is as likely to be in one group as the other. This means that every person selected to be a participant has an equal chance of being in any of the groups to be used.
Name the differences between random sampling and random allocation.
Random sampling is used to select participants for an experiment, whereas random allocation is used to assigned/allocate the participants to different groups.
What procedure is used to counter order effect?
Counterbalancing.
Define counterbalancing.
Counterbalancing involves systematically changing the order of the treatments or tasks for participants in a “balanced” way to counter the unwanted effects on performance of any one order.
Name the two types of counterbalancing.
The between participant and within participant counterbalancing.
Describe between-participant counterbalancing.
The between-participant counterbalancing procedure involves counterbalancing the order in which the groups of participant are exposed to the experimental treatment. This means that each group of participant receives the treatments in a different order.
Describe within-participant counterbalancing.
Within-participant counterbalancing procedure requires the each participant to be exposed to the same combination of treatments.
Define single-blind procedure.
The single-blind procedure is when the participants are unaware of the conditions of the experiment which they have been allocated to, therefore the experimental treatment.
What variable does the double-blind procedure counter for?
Participant expectations (placebo effect) and experimenter effects.
Define double-blind procedure.
Double-blind procedure is when the participant and the experimenter directly involved with the participant are unaware of the conditions of the experiment to which the participant has been allocated.
Which group is always given the placebo?
The control group.
Define the use of standardized instructions and procedures.
The use of standardized instructions and procedures means that the instructions given to the participants are pre-determined and identical in terms of what they state and how they are given. It also means the techniques used for making observations and recording responses are identical and that all participants are treated in the same way.
How do researchers avoid extraneous variables in terms of standardized instructions and procedures?
By using automation, that is the use of electronic or mechanical devices.
Name the types of experimental research design.
Repeated-measure design, matched-participants design and independent-groups design.
Define repeated-measures design.
In the repeated-measure design, each participant is exposed to both the experimental and control conditions of the experiment, so that the effects of individual participant differences balance out exactly.
Name the advantages and disadvantages of repeated- measures design.
Advantages
- Eliminates potential confounding variables arising from individual participant differences.
- Requires a relatively smaller number of participants
Disadvantages
- Potential order effects
- Can result in substantial participant attrition, or loss of participants.
Define matched-participants design.
The matched-participants design involves the selection of pairs of participants who are similar in one or more personal characteristic that can influence the results of the DV, and then allocation each member of the pair to different experimental conditions.
Name the advantages and disadvantages of matched-participants design.
Advantages
- The variables are constant across the condition, thereby eliminating them as potential confounding variables
- Participant attrition is also less common
Disadvantages
- Can be difficult in identifying which specific participant variable should be matched
- Can be difficult and time-consuming
What types of people are the ideal for matched-participants design, and why?
Identical twins, as they have the same age, biological sex, cultural and educational background and have very similar genetic make-up.
Define the independent-groups design.
In the independent-groups design, each participant is randomly allocated to one or two entirely separate groups or conditions.
Name the advantages and disadvantages of the independent-groups design.
Advantages - Participant attrition is less common - No order effects Disadvantages - Has less control over participant characteristics
What is data?
Data is information that is collected in a research study.
Name the two types of data collected in experimental research.
Qualitative and quantitative data.
What is qualitative data? Provide examples.
Qualitative data is information about the “qualities” or characteristics of what is being studied. For example, descriptions, words, pictures, texts, etc.
What is quantitative data? Provide examples..
Quantitative data is information about the “quantities” or amounts of what is being studied. For example, percentages, means, p-values, etc.
Why do psychologists tend to prefer the use of quantitative data?
Because the use of numbers increases the precision of the results and the ease at which the results can be communicated. It also enables more precise and detailed analysis through the use of standardized procedures and tests.
Define case studies.
A case study is an intensive, in-depth investigation of a behavior or event of interest in an individual, small population or situation.
When are case studies used?
Case studies are usually used when large numbers of participants are not available.
Name the advantages and disadvantages of case studies.
Advantages
- Valuable source of information for further research hypotheses
- Provides an actual “snapshot” of the experience
- Provides detailed and valuable descriptive information
Disadvantages
- Limited sample size
- Results cannot be generalized with certainty
- Information provided by the participant or researcher may be biased
- Cannot be replicate to test the results
- Can be painstaking and time consuming
What is an observational study?
An observational study involves carefully watching and recording behavior as it occurs. Psychologists use observational studies when the behavior under investigation is clearly visible and easily recorded.
Define observation.
An observation is any means by which a phenomenon is being studied.
Where can observational studies be conducted?
Laboratory settings, or field settings.
True or False
An observational study is an experimental research method
False.
Name the three types of observational study.
Naturalistic observation, participant and non-participant observation.
What is naturalistic observation?
In naturalistic observation, the researcher views the naturally occurring behavior of interest in an unnoticeable manner so that their presences does not influence the behavior being observed. For example, a researcher interested in studying the behavior of children will stand behind a one-way mirror.
What is non-participant observation?
Non-participant observation is when the researcher tries to conceal their appearance while making the observations. For example, a researcher might sit on a park bench, pretending to be reading a book while secretly observing passerby’s.
What is participant observation?
Participant observation is when the researcher is a member of the group being observed. The researcher may deliberately be mistaken by the participants as being part of the group or situation. For example, the Rosenhan experiment.
Name the advantages and disadvantages of observational studies.
Advantages
- Naturalistic observations enables researchers to gain more accurate information
- Does not require the cooperation of the participants being observed
Disadvantages
- Observer bias
- Difficult to determine the cause of the observed behavior
- Can require a lot of patience to wait for the behavior of interest to occur
What is a self-report?
A self-report is the participant’s responses to questions, statements or instructions presented by the researcher.
What are the two most commonly used self-report data collection techniques?
Interviews and questionnaires.
Name the two types of response questions that may be used in self-reports.
Fixed response and free response questions.
Name the difference between free response and fixed response questions.
Free-response questions require participants to describe their thoughts, feelings and behavior “freely” in their own words, thereby providing qualitative data.
Fixed-response questions require participants to choose from a number of fixed alternative responses, thereby providing quantitative data.
What are the limitations of using free-response questions?
Harder to summarize and score, and convert into quantitative data. May also be susceptible to experimenter effects.
Name the advantages and disadvantages of self-reports.
Advantages
- Simple and easy to use.
- For rating scales, a high language skill is not required.
- Can be administered to large numbers of people at the same time.
- Provides valuable quantitative data.
Disadvantages
- Can be social desirability. Some people may give false or misleading answers to create a favorable impression.
- Cannot be used with children, people from non-English speaking backgrounds, illiterate adults, etc.
- Can be time consuming.
Name the two types of statistics used in psychological research.
Descriptive and inferential statistics.
What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?
Descriptive statistics are used to analyze, organize, summarize and describe the results.
Inferential statistics are used to interpret and give meaning to the results.
Name an example of descriptive and inferential statistics.
Table (descriptive), p-values (inferential)
Name the three measure of central tendency.
Mean, median, and mode.
Define frequency distribution.
Frequency distribution is a way of organizing data to show how often a score or measure occurs in a set of data.
When is the mean a useful indicator of a typical score?
When the scores in a set of data are fairly evenly distributed around the center.
True or False
The median is used when extreme scores occur in a set of data.
True.
Define the term statistical significance.
Statistical significance is used to indicate whether the difference between the experimental and control group is a real difference and not due to chance factors alone.
What does p-value stand for?
Probability value.
At what p-value are the results of the study considered to be statistically significant.
p smaller than 0.05
What is a conclusion?
A conclusion is a decision or judgement about what the results obtained from an investigation mean.
True or False
A hypothesis can be proven true.
False.
A hypothesis can never be proven true as there are always alternative explanations.
Define generalization.
A generalization is a decision or judgement being made about how widely the findings of a study can be applied, particularly to other members of the population from which the sample was drawn.
When generalizing the findings of a research study, what do psychologists have to consider?
They have to consider whether the sample was representative of the population, the topic of the study and how strong the relationship between the two variables were.
What is the purpose of using ethical guidelines?
The use of ethical guidelines help ensure that the wellbeing and rights of research participants are protected during their involvement with the study and following the study.
Name the four “ethical values”.
Research integrity and merit, beneficence, justice and respect.
Name the five participant rights.
- Confidentiality
- Voluntarily participation
- Informed consent
- Withdrawal rights
- Debriefing (after the use of any deception)
What are reporting conventions?
Reporting conventions are well-established and widely recognized standards or rules about how a report should be written and presented.
Name the two main reasons for reporting research findings.
- To communicate or share the results with other, particularly other researchers who are interested.
- Enable replication to test the reliability and validity of the results.
What format is reports usually written in?
The APA format.
Name the steps of writing a report in order.
Title, abstract, introduction, methods (participants, materials, procedures), results, discussion, references, appendices.
What is involved in Step 3 of psychological research?
Determining what type of research method to use to test the hypothesis, such as experiments, case studies, observational studies, etc. Other information such as type of data collected, number of participants, sampling procedures, allocation procedures, etc are also determined.
What type of information should be included in the informed consent?
The nature and purpose of the study, any harms or risks involved, the possible outcomes, etc.
What is debriefing?
Debriefing involves clarifying each participant’s understanding of the research study after it has been conducted.
