Chapter 11: Science Flashcards
1
Q
What is a catalyst in chemistry?
A
A substance that promotes, enhances, or speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed in the process.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that meet these requirements.
2
Q
What does centrifugal force refer to?
A
The tendency of an object to be pulled away from the center of its orbit when in motion.
It is the complement of centripetal force, which keeps objects in circular motion.
3
Q
What is the process of fission?
A
A nuclear reaction where the nucleus of a large atom, such as uranium, is split into smaller parts, releasing energy and neutrons.
Fission is used in atomic bombs and nuclear reactors.
4
Q
What is fusion in nuclear reactions?
A
The process of combining the nuclei of two hydrogen atoms to form a helium nucleus, releasing energy in the process.
Fusion powers the sun and is the principle behind thermonuclear bombs.
5
Q
What does half-life refer to in radioactivity?
A
The fixed amount of time it takes for half of a sample of a radioactive substance to decay.
Example: The half-life of uranium-238 is 4.5 billion years.
6
Q
What is mass in physics?
A
The quantity of matter in a body, independent of its weight or volume.
Mass is related to energy through Einstein’s equation E = mc².
7
Q
Define ‘matrix’ in a scientific context.
A
The environment or material in which something develops or is contained, also used in mathematics as a rectangular array of elements.
In biology, it can refer to the rock in which fossils are found.
8
Q
What is osmosis?
A
The process where fluid passes through a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration, seeking equilibrium.
It is a passive process requiring no energy.
9
Q
What is a parameter in mathematics?
A
A variable quantity that is constant within the context of a problem but can vary under different conditions.
Parameters help define or estimate unknown quantities.
10
Q
What does ‘quantum’ refer to in physics?
A
The smallest discrete quantity of any physical property, often associated with light and energy.
Quantum theory describes the behavior of particles at atomic and subatomic levels.
11
Q
What is a quark?
A
A fundamental particle that combines to form protons and neutrons, possessing properties like ‘color’ and ‘flavor’.
Quarks are never found in isolation; they exist in groups.
12
Q
What is symbiosis?
A
A mutually beneficial relationship between different organisms.
An example is the relationship between rhinoceroses and tickbirds.
13
Q
What is the definition of symbiosis?
A
A relationship where both parties benefit in different ways, compensating for each other’s shortcomings.
Classic examples include the rhinoceros and the yellow tickbird, and lichen, which consists of alga and fungus.
14
Q
What role do synapses play in the nervous system?
A
They are the junctions between neurons where nerve impulses are transmitted through chemical signals.
An average neuron has between one thousand and ten thousand synapses.
15
Q
Define synergy in a biological context.
A
The relationship between agents whose combined effects are greater than the sum of their individual effects.
Example includes the combined effects of alcohol and barbiturates.
16
Q
What is valence in chemistry?
A
A measure of the combining power of an element, indicating how many chemical bonds it can form.
Elements like neon are unreactive due to a full outer electron shell, while carbon is highly reactive.
17
Q
What was the Ptolemaic system?
A
An astronomical model that placed the Earth at the center of the universe, with celestial bodies revolving around it.
This model was accepted until Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model.
18
Q
What is the Big Bang?
A
The event marking the beginning of the universe, where all matter was concentrated in a tiny space before expanding.
This theory explains the observed expansion of galaxies.
19
Q
What happens to matter under high temperatures according to the Big Bang theory?
A
Matter changes form and new particles are created due to high-energy collisions.
Example: Heating ice turns it into water, and further heating turns it into steam.
20
Q
What significant development occurred in the 1920s regarding our understanding of the universe?
A
We could trace events back to half a million years after the universe’s creation.
This understanding has progressed to fractions of a second after the Big Bang.
21
Q
What is the grand unification theory (GUT)?
A
A theoretical framework that attempts to describe all fundamental forces and particle interactions in a single model.
It is still under intensive experimentation.
22
Q
What are quarks?
A
Elementary particles that combine to form protons and neutrons, held together by gluons.
Quarks are believed to originate from quark-gluon plasma formed shortly after the Big Bang.
23
Q
What did John Dalton contribute to atomic theory?
A
He published the modern atomic theory, proposing that substances are made of a few different types of atoms.
This theory laid the foundation for modern chemistry.
24
Q
Fill in the blank: The relationship between the sadist and the masochist is not considered a true symbiosis because they derive too much the same benefit—_______ from their joint undertaking.
A
sexual gratification.
25
True or False: The universe is currently believed to be static and unchanging.
False.
26
What were the conditions of the early universe shortly after the Big Bang?
It was extremely hot and dense, leading to high-energy collisions between particles.
## Footnote
This environment allowed for the creation of fundamental particles and forces.
27
What significant event occurred at approximately 10^-5 seconds after the Big Bang?
Elementary particles began to form the nuclei of atoms.
## Footnote
This marked the beginning of the formation of matter as we know it.
28
What are the three quarks that keep protons and neutrons together?
Elmer's
## Footnote
Refers to a metaphorical description of particles that hold quarks together
29
What primordial state of matter is believed to have existed ten millionths of a second after the Big Bang?
Quark-gluon plasma
## Footnote
A fundamental state that eventually cooled to form protons and neutrons
30
What process describes the hardening of quark-gluon plasma into protons and neutrons?
Hadronization
31
What are the four fundamental forces in nature?
* Gravity
* Electromagnetism
* Strong force
* Weak force
32
Which fundamental force is the strongest?
Strong force
33
What is the force that holds elementary particles together in a nucleus?
Strong force
34
What fundamental force is associated with slow radioactive decay?
Weak force
35
What theory did Isaac Newton develop that unified the forces of gravity?
Theory of Universal Gravitation
36
In what year did Steven Weinberg theorize the unification of weak and electromagnetic forces?
1968
37
What principle suggests that different observers can have different definitions of things?
Gauge principle
38
What does GUT stand for?
Grand Unification Theory
39
What is predicted by most Grand Unification Theories regarding protons?
Protons can decay
40
What is the name of the theory that aims to unify all forces of nature?
Theory of Everything (TOE)
41
What is the first theory of relativity published in 1905 called?
Special theory of relativity
42
What is the principle that states any two observers will discover the same laws of physics?
Principle of relativity
43
What is the name of the theory published in 1916 that is associated with gravity?
General theory of relativity
44
What analogy is often used to explain Einstein's curved space-time in general relativity?
Rubber sheet analogy
45
What principle states that the act of measurement affects the system being measured?
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
46
What does quantum mechanics describe?
Behavior of matter on atomic and subatomic levels
47
What is the term for particles that exist briefly and are not real?
Virtual particles
48
What is chaos theory primarily concerned with?
Unpredictability in dynamic systems
49
What are the two parts of chaos theory?
* Small changes can cause unpredictable outcomes
* There is order beneath chaos
50
What does superstring theory propose about the composition of the universe?
The universe is made of tiny loops of strings
51
What is the significance of M Theory in physics?
Links gravity with the three other fundamental forces
52
What major challenge does the incompatibility of general relativity and quantum mechanics present?
Roadblock to a Theory of Everything
53
What is the main focus of M Theory introduced by Edward Witten?
M Theory connects various versions of string theory and suggests that they are approximations of an underlying theory
## Footnote
Witten hypothesized that there are actually eleven dimensions instead of the standard ten.
54
What is the significance of the term 'chaos' in relation to science?
Chaos theory suggests that seemingly random events are part of a cosmic order governed by natural laws
## Footnote
This provides a sense of control over unpredictable phenomena.
55
What was the mistaken assumption that chaos theory corrected?
The assumption that the Newtonian world was predictable
## Footnote
This correction is a significant step forward in understanding complex systems.
56
Who is credited with the concept of the Butterfly Effect?
Edward Lorenz
## Footnote
The Butterfly Effect illustrates the idea that small changes in initial conditions can lead to vastly different outcomes.
57
What is a Strange Attractor?
A visual model of chaotic behavior that forms a pattern from data points
## Footnote
It suggests underlying structure or laws guiding chaotic systems.
58
What is Hyperspace in the context of string theory?
Higher-dimensional space posited by string theory
## Footnote
It includes concepts like wormholes and parallel universes.
59
What does the term Fractal refer to?
An irregular pattern that is self-similar in scale
## Footnote
Examples include broccoli florets and the coastline of England.
60
What is Supersymmetry?
A mathematical symmetry in higher-dimensional space allowing for the interchange between bosons and fermions
## Footnote
It proposes that particles and their corresponding 'sparticles' were once identical.
61
What is the significance of the fossil Sahelanthropus tchadensis?
It lived 6 to 7 million years ago and raises questions about the age of the common ancestor with chimps
## Footnote
Discovered in Chad, it has ape-like features but may represent an early hominid.
62
Who is Lucy in the context of human evolution?
A 3.2 to 3.6 million-year-old hominid fossil discovered in 1974
## Footnote
Lucy is one of the most famous and complete hominid fossils.
63
What does Complexity theory study?
How simple elements can give rise to complex systems
## Footnote
It seeks to understand the organization of chaotic systems into complex structures.
64
What is the main challenge faced by physicists regarding M Theory?
The lack of advanced mathematical tools to prove or understand it
## Footnote
Without these tools, M Theory remains largely theoretical.
65
What does the name 'Tournai' mean in the local Goran language?
Hope of life
## Footnote
Tournai is identified by Michel Brunet and associates and is considered important due to its discovery location and implications for hominid evolution.
66
What is the significance of the discovery of Tournai?
Challenges the understanding of the common ancestor with chimps and suggests hominid evolution was messier than thought
## Footnote
Tournai's status as a potential hominid or a separate branch of the hominid family tree is debated.
67
What is the scientific name of the species nicknamed 'Tournai'?
Orrorin turenensis
## Footnote
The name means 'original man' in the Tugen language, where the fossils were found.
68
How old is Orrorin turenensis estimated to be?
Approximately 6 million years ago
## Footnote
The fossils consist of fragmentary arms, thigh bones, lower jaws, and teeth.
69
What does the morphology of Orrorin turenensis suggest about its locomotion?
Bipedal and adapted to tree climbing
## Footnote
Grooves in the femurs indicate bipedalism.
70
Who discovered Ardipithecus ramidus and when?
Tim White, Gen Suwa, and Berhane Asfaw in 1994
## Footnote
This species was initially believed to be part of the Australopithecus genus.
71
What is the estimated height and weight of Ardipithecus ramidus?
Approximately four feet tall and 80 pounds
## Footnote
It could walk upright but likely spent time in trees.
72
What are the upper canine teeth characteristics of Ardipithecus ramidus?
Diamond-shaped and humanlike
## Footnote
This contrasts with the V-shaped canines of chimpanzees.
73
What does the discovery of Ardipithecus ramidus imply about hominid adaptation?
Challenges the idea that bipedal adaptation was solely due to savanna expansion
## Footnote
It lived in a rain forest.
74
What is the time frame for Australopithecus anamensis?
Around 4 million years ago
## Footnote
It is characterized by a primitive cranium and a more advanced body.
75
What is a significant finding about Australopithecus afarensis?
Famous for the fossil known as Lucy
## Footnote
Lucy was discovered in 1974 and is notable for her completeness.
76
What is the brain size of Australopithecus africanus?
Between 420 and 500 cubic centimeters
## Footnote
This suggests some potential for analytical skills.
77
What is the nickname of the fossil discovered in 1984 known as Australopithecus aethiopicus?
The Black Skull
## Footnote
This species is characterized by a large flat face and powerful chewing muscles.
78
What is the time frame for Paranthropus robustus?
About 2 to 1.5 million years ago
## Footnote
It shows considerable sexual dimorphism in body size.
79
What is the distinctive trait of Paranthropus boisei?
Known as the 'Nutcracker Man' due to its large teeth
## Footnote
It specialized in eating tough vegetation.
80
What does Homo habilis mean?
Handy man
## Footnote
This species is known for its tool use.
81
What is the estimated brain volume of Homo habilis?
About 750 cubic centimeters
## Footnote
This indicates developed frontal and temporal lobes.
82
Fill in the blank: Orrorin turenensis was discovered in _______.
Kenya
## Footnote
This was a significant departure from previous excavation sites in Ethiopia.
83
What is the height and weight range of Homo habilis?
Four and a half to five feet tall, 64 to 100 pounds.
84
What indicates developed frontal and temporal lobes in Homo habilis?
Higher forehead.
85
What tools did Homo habilis use?
Hand tools.
86
What type of diet did Homo habilis have?
A varied diet including meat.
87
What is the significance of Homo georgiens?
A transitional species between H. habilis and H. erectus, challenging the 'out of Africa' theory.
88
What is the time frame for Homo erectus?
From 1.8 million to 300,000 years ago.
89
What are the vital stats of Homo erectus?
Nearly our size, with brain volume varying between 750 and 1225 cubic centimeters.
90
What major advancements did Homo erectus achieve?
Produced the first hand axes, made use of fire and shelter.
91
What is the time frame for Homo ergaster?
1.7 to 1.5 million years ago.
92
What notable find is associated with Homo ergaster?
Turkana Boy, an almost complete skeleton.
93
What is the time frame for Homo sapiens?
From about 600,000 to 100,000 years ago.
94
What is another name for Homo sapiens?
Homo heidelbergensis.
95
What is the time frame for Homo sapiens neanderthalensis?
From about 250,000 to 30,000 years ago.
96
How were Neanderthals built compared to common beliefs?
Powerfully built and solid, not hunched brutes.
97
What evidence suggests Neanderthals conducted funerals?
Remains of flower pollen at a gravesite.
98
What is the time frame for Homo floresiensis?
94,000 to 12,000 years ago.
99
What nickname is given to Homo floresiensis?
The Hobbits.
100
What is the brain size of Homo floresiensis compared to modern humans?
About the size of grapefruits.
101
What is the time frame for Homo sapiens sapiens?
From about 195,000 years ago to today.
102
What is the average brain volume for modern Homo sapiens sapiens?
About 1,350 cubic centimeters.
103
What is genetic engineering?
The process that inserts genes from one organism into the cells of another.
104
What is the purpose of recombinant-DNA technique?
To produce substances like human insulin using bacteria.
105
Who discovered the double helix structure of DNA?
Francis Crick and James Watson.
106
What is the role of genes in DNA?
Responsible for particular traits.
107
What is gene splicing?
Not to be confused with cloning; involves altering DNA.
108
What is in-vitro fertilization?
The creation of test-tube babies through fertilization in a petri dish.
109
What ethical concerns are raised by biotechnology?
Potential tampering with human characteristics and the escape of genetically engineered microbes.
110
Fill in the blank: Genetic engineering allows the insertion of genes from one organism into the cells of _______.
[another organism]
111
What are the three long periods during which ice built up at the earth's poles called?
Ice ages
## Footnote
Each ice age consists of several 100,000-year cycles, punctuated by warmer interglacials.
112
What is the average duration of an interglacial period?
10,000 years
113
How much colder were the days at the peak of the last ice age compared to now?
About eleven degrees colder
114
What is the theory that explains the cause of ice ages based on changes in the earth's position relative to the sun?
Astronomical theory
115
List the three periodic changes that influence the amount of solar radiation the earth receives.
* Wobble on its axis
* Tilt of the axis
* Change in the shape of the earth's orbit
116
What effect do pollution and volcanic activity have on the potential onset of an ice age?
They may lessen the amount of heat received from the sun
117
What is the greenhouse effect?
The process where gases like CO2 trap heat in the atmosphere
118
What has caused the increase of atmospheric CO2 over the last 100 years?
Burning of fossil fuels and widespread deforestation
119
What temperature rise do some climatologists predict could happen by this century?
2°C to 4°C (3.6°F to 7.2°F)
120
What are the potential consequences of a rise in global temperature?
* Melting polar ice caps
* Rising sea levels
* Upsetting weather patterns
* Decreasing wind circulation
121
True or False: The greenhouse effect is synonymous with the destruction of the ozone layer.
False
122
What was discovered in 1985 that raised concerns about the ozone layer?
A large hole over the South Pole
123
What are the two major kinds of white blood cells involved in the immune response?
* Phagocytes
* Lymphocytes
124
What is the role of macrophages in the immune system?
They swallow up invaders and display antigens
125
What type of cells are T and B cells, and what do they do?
Lymphocytes; they coordinate the immune response
126
What cytokine do macrophages secrete to stimulate helper T cells?
Interleukin-1
127
What do helper T cells produce to promote the creation of antibodies?
Lymphokines
128
What are memory cells?
B and T cells that remain in the body to guard against future attacks by the same antigen
129
What is the main challenge posed by the HIV virus in relation to the immune system?
It hides inside helper T cells and macrophages
130
Fill in the blank: The left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for _______.
Language and logic
131
Fill in the blank: The right hemisphere of the brain handles _______ processes.
Intuitive, nonverbal
132
Who won the Nobel Prize in 1981 for uncovering the dichotomy between the brain's hemispheres?
Roger Sperry
133
What are the two types of thinking often associated with the left and right hemispheres?
* Left hemisphere: Intellect, concrete thinking
* Right hemisphere: Intuition, abstract thinking
134
What is one hypothesis related to déjà vu based on split-brain theory?
It may be a neurological glitch causing information to reach one hemisphere before the other
135
What is one reason the body struggles against cold viruses?
Cold viruses are constantly mutating to escape detection.
136
How does HIV enter the body?
HIV enters the body hidden inside helper T cells and macrophages in blood, semen, or vaginal fluid from an infected person.
137
What do helper T cells fail to do when infected with HIV?
Helper T cells fail to sound the alarm that would activate killer T and B cells.
138
What potential benefit do monoclonal antibodies offer in cancer treatment?
Monoclonal antibodies may be used to deliver drugs or radiation to a specific diseased site in the body.
139
What is psychoneuroimmunology?
The study of interactions between the mind and the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems.
140
What hormone is produced in excess when the body is under stress?
Cortisol.
141
Fill in the blank: The Human Genome Project began in 1990 and ended in _______.
2003.
142
What was the primary goal of the Human Genome Project?
To identify the thousands of human genes and map the exact sequence of the three billion base pairs.
143
True or False: The number of genes in humans is higher than originally estimated.
False.
144
What percentage of nucleotides in the human genome are considered 'junk'?
About 97 percent.
145
What is the approximate final count of human genes identified by the Human Genome Project?
Twenty-five thousand.
146
What significant advancements have occurred due to the Human Genome Project?
Identification of genetically linked diseases and potential new therapies.
147
What ethical dilemma arises from genetic research regarding unborn babies?
Whether to abort fetuses found to have genes for certain diseases.
148
Fill in the blank: Cloning was first popularized by the birth of _______.
Dolly.
149
What is somatic cell nuclear transfer?
A cloning technique where the nucleus from an adult cell is transferred to an egg cell without a nucleus.
150
What are stem cells known for?
Their ability to divide without limit and replenish other cells in the organism.
151
What is therapeutic cloning primarily aimed at?
Creating stem cells to cure diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.
152
True or False: Cloning is only used for reproductive purposes.
False.
153
What significant challenge does therapeutic cloning face in public debate?
Ethical concerns regarding the extraction of stem cells from cloned embryos.
154
What did the United Nations General Assembly adopt in response to human cloning concerns?
A nonbinding resolution to prohibit all forms of human cloning.
155
What is therapeutic cloning?
A technology that may hold the key to curing diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and diabetes.
156
What is the main ethical concern regarding therapeutic cloning?
The extraction of stem cells from cloned embryos, which destroys the embryo in the process.
157
True or False: In Japan, attempting to clone human beings can result in a mandatory ten-year sentence.
True
158
Who became an outspoken advocate of stem cell research after her husband succumbed to Alzheimer's?
Nancy Reagan
159
What is a chimera in the context of stem cell research?
An organism created by inserting human stem cells into an animal embryo.
160
What principle did Archimedes discover related to buoyancy?
The loss of weight an object seems to incur when placed in a liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid it displaces.
161
What was Archimedes' famous exclamation upon discovering his principle?
Eureka!
162
What does Archimedes' principle apply to?
Bodies immersed in liquids, floating bodies, solids, liquids, and gases.
163
Fill in the blank: The ratio of a given density of a solid or liquid to the density of _______ is called specific gravity.
water
164
What sequence did Fibonacci develop while solving a rabbit population problem?
Fibonacci series: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144.
165
What is the ratio that appears between adjacent Fibonacci numbers after 3?
Approximately 1:1.618, known as the Golden Ratio.
166
Who developed the binomial nomenclature system for classifying organisms?
Carolus Linnaeus
167
What is the purpose of the Linnaean system of classification?
To provide an orderly method for cataloguing plants and animals.
168
What does Brownian movement describe?
The zigzag, irregular dance of minute particles of matter when suspended in a liquid.
169
Who established the existence of Brownian movement?
Robert Brown
170
What is the Doppler effect?
The change in frequency of a wave due to a change in distance between the source and the receiver.
171
True or False: The Doppler effect is used in astronomy to measure distances between stars.
True
172
What is Boolean algebra?
A form of algebra that uses symbols to represent logical statements and operations.
173
What does a truth table do?
Lists all possible combinations of true and false values of logical statements.
174
What is a Môbius strip?
A one-sided surface created by giving a flat strip of paper a half-twist and joining the ends.
175
What happens when you cut a Môbius strip along its middle?
You get a normal two-sided strip.
176
What is a Môbius strip?
A surface with only one side and one edge.
## Footnote
Named after the mathematician August Ferdinand Môbius.
177
What happens when you cut a Môbius strip along its middle?
You get a normal two-sided strip that is twice as long.
## Footnote
This occurs because cutting adds a second edge and side.
178
What is topology?
The study of geometric transformations and properties that are preserved through deformations.
## Footnote
It often involves paradoxical shapes like the Môbius strip.
179
What does the Môbius strip illustrate about perception?
It suggests that something appearing two-sided may actually be one-sided when traced around.
## Footnote
This relates to holistic versus reductionistic views of understanding.
180
What is Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem?
It states that in any mathematical system, there are propositions that cannot be proven true or false within that system.
## Footnote
Demonstrated by Kurt Gödel in 1931.
181
What implication does Gödel's Theorem have for logical systems?
All logical systems of any complexity are inherently incomplete.
## Footnote
They contain more true statements than can be proven by their own rules.
182
How does Gödel's Theorem relate to human intelligence versus computers?
It argues that computers are limited by fixed axioms, while humans can discover unexpected truths.
## Footnote
This suggests a difference in the flexibility of human thought.
183
What are natural numbers?
The counting numbers starting from 1.
## Footnote
Examples include 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
184
What defines prime numbers?
Natural numbers greater than 1 that cannot be evenly divided by any number other than themselves and 1.
## Footnote
Examples include 2, 3, 5, 7, 11.
185
What are integers?
Natural numbers, zero, and all negative numbers.
## Footnote
Examples include -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
186
What are rational numbers?
Numbers that can be expressed as the ratio of two integers, with the denominator not equal to zero.
## Footnote
Examples include 1/2, -3/4, and 0.75.
187
What are real numbers?
The set of rational numbers along with irrational numbers.
## Footnote
Examples include √2, π, and 0.333...
188
What are transcendental numbers?
A special category of irrational numbers that are not algebraic.
## Footnote
Examples include π and e.
189
What defines complex numbers?
Numbers that consist of both real and imaginary components, often expressed in the form a + bi.
## Footnote
Examples include 3 + 2i and 0 + i.
190
What is the significance of the number zero in mathematics?
It represents the concept of 'nothing' and allows for the distinction between numbers like 37 and 307.
## Footnote
Zero is essential for modern arithmetic and algebra.
191
What is the historical significance of negative numbers?
Initially rejected by the Greeks, they became accepted in the 16th century through systematic use.
## Footnote
Cardano was one of the first to use negative numbers in calculations.
192
What is the Goldbach conjecture?
An unsolved problem in number theory that proposes every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two prime numbers.
## Footnote
Formulated by Christian Goldbach in 1742.
193
Who introduced the symbol i to represent imaginary numbers?
The most prolific mathematician of all time
194
What are vector quantities characterized by?
Magnitude and direction
195
What do complex numbers correspond to in a plane?
Points in it
196
What type of polynomial equations can complex numbers solve?
Ax^n + Bx^(n-1) + Cx^(n-2) + ... + Z = 0
197
What is the significance of the degree n in polynomial equations?
It indicates the number of solutions
198
Which mathematicians were significant in the development of complex numbers in the nineteenth century?
Gauss, Kummer, Dedekind
199
What are quaternions?
An extension of complex numbers to four dimensions
200
Who first suggested the concept of quaternions?
William Hamilton in 1843
201
What does entropy measure in a system?
Total disorder, randomness, or chaos
202
What does the First Law of Thermodynamics state?
Energy is conserved; it is indestructible
203
What does the Second Law of Thermodynamics indicate about entropy?
The entropy of the universe tends to a maximum
204
What happens to a system as it reaches maximum entropy?
All molecules move at approximately the same speed and order is lost
205
What does the 'arrow of time' represent?
The physical distinction between past and present
206
What is the relationship between entropy and complexity?
Progressive disorder is synonymous with increasing complexity
207
What does evolution literally mean?
Unrolling
208
What was Charles Darwin's contribution to the concept of evolution?
He presented it as a scientific theory in 'Origin of Species' and 'Descent of Man'
209
What is the principle behind natural selection?
Survival of individuals with advantageous variations
210
What does Darwin conclude about beings that vary profitably?
They have a better chance of surviving and being naturally selected
211
True or False: Natural selection involves conscious decision-making by organisms.
False
212
Fill in the blank: _______ is the measure of disorder in a thermodynamic system.
Entropy
213
List the names of the three laws of thermodynamics.
* First Law of Thermodynamics
* Second Law of Thermodynamics
* Third Law of Thermodynamics
214
What does the concept of maximum entropy imply for the universe?
It will eventually reach a state of molecular chaos
215
What does the phrase 'red in tooth and claw' signify in Darwin's context?
The competitive nature of existence in nature
216
What are aleph-null, aleph-one, and aleph-two examples of?
Styles of infinity
217
Who worked out 'the arithmetics of infinity'?
Georg Cantor
218
What is natural selection?
Natural selection is the process by which species change through chance and heredity, leading to the survival of organisms with useful traits that are passed on to future generations.
219
True or False: Natural selection involves conscious choice by organisms.
False
220
What does the term 'survival of the fittest' refer to?
'Survival of the fittest' refers to the idea that organisms better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.
221
What was the primary evidence for Darwin's theory of evolution?
The primary evidence included fossils, species distributions, plant and animal structures, and embryology.
222
Who is Gregor Mendel, and what did he contribute to genetics?
Gregor Mendel is known as the father of genetics for his work on the laws of genetic inheritance using pea plants.
223
What is Neo-Darwinism?
Neo-Darwinism is an updated version of Darwin's theory that incorporates genetics to explain how evolution works.
224
Fill in the blank: The theory of evolution could not be 'proven' but could demonstrate how it worked due to _______.
[genetics]
225
What role did the Arabic language play during the Middle Ages?
The Arabic language served as a critical means of communication that helped preserve and translate ancient scientific texts, making science international.
226
Who was Al-Khwarazmi and what did he contribute to mathematics?
Al-Khwarazmi was a Baghdad mathematician who developed algebra and introduced Hindu numeral systems to Europe.
227
What did Galileo allegedly demonstrate from the Leaning Tower of Pisa?
Galileo allegedly demonstrated that objects of different weights fall at the same speed, contradicting Aristotle's claims.
228
True or False: There are independent accounts of Galileo's experiment at the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
False
229
What significant contributions did Galileo make to science?
Galileo constructed a telescope, discovered spots on the sun, mountains on the moon, satellites of Jupiter, and phases of Venus.
230
What is the theory of universal gravitation?
The theory of universal gravitation states that the force of attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
231
What was the phlogiston theory?
The phlogiston theory posited that all combustible substances contained a physical component called phlogiston, which was released during burning.
232
Who is Antoine Lavoisier and what is his contribution to chemistry?
Antoine Lavoisier is known for developing a unified system in chemistry, identifying oxygen's role in combustion, and debunking the phlogiston theory.
233
Fill in the blank: _______ combined hydrogen and oxygen to produce water.
[Henry Cavendish]
234
What did Joseph Priestley and Karl Scheele discover?
Joseph Priestley and Karl Scheele independently isolated oxygen but did not fully understand its relationship with combustion.
235
Who isolated oxygen before Lavoisier?
Joseph Priestley and Karl Scheele
## Footnote
Both failed to understand the relationship between oxygen and combustion.
236
What did Lavoisier conclude about air?
Air is made up of two elements, one contributing to combustion and the other, nitrogen, not contributing
## Footnote
This was a significant advancement in understanding the composition of air.
237
What was Henry Cavendish's conclusion about water?
Water was hydrogen minus phlogiston
## Footnote
This was based on his combination of hydrogen and oxygen.
238
Who independently developed the theory of evolution by natural selection?
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
## Footnote
Both were influenced by Malthus' Essay on Population.
239
What is the Victorian catchphrase coined by Herbert Spencer?
'Survival of the fittest'
## Footnote
This phrase is often associated with Darwinian evolution.
240
What did Darwin keep from 1837?
Notebook on Transmutation of Species
## Footnote
This was where he began formulating his ideas on evolution.
241
Which scientist is known for zany ideas about the inheritance of acquired characteristics?
Jean-Baptiste-Pierre-Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck
## Footnote
He proposed that characteristics gained during an organism's life could be passed to offspring.
242
What did Nikolai Lobachevsky contribute to mathematics?
Developed non-Euclidean geometry
## Footnote
He challenged Euclid's fifth axiom regarding parallel lines.
243
What is Planck's constant represented by?
The letter h
## Footnote
Its value is approximately 6.626 x 10^-34 Joule seconds.
244
What principle did Heisenberg introduce in 1927?
Uncertainty principle
## Footnote
It states that the position and velocity of a particle cannot both be precisely measured at the same time.
245
Who calculated the speed of light using observations of Jupiter?
Olaus Roemer
## Footnote
He was able to demonstrate that light has a finite speed.
246
What did Thomas Bartholin discover?
The lymphatic system
## Footnote
This was a significant contribution to human anatomy.
247
What model did Niels Bohr develop?
A new model for the hydrogen atom
## Footnote
He won the Nobel Prize in 1922 for this work.
248
Fill in the blank: The Inquisition executed Giordano Bruno for his _______.
heretical beliefs
## Footnote
His ideas were more mystical than scientific.
249
True or False: Galileo was a martyr for science.
False
## Footnote
He recanted his views under pressure from the Inquisition.
250
What was Lavoisier accused of that led to his execution?
Being a tax collector under the ancien régime
## Footnote
His scientific contributions were not the reason for his execution.
