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Cracking the SAT Biology E/M Subject Test > Chapter 11: Control: The Nervous and Endocrine Systems > Flashcards

Chapter 11: Control: The Nervous and Endocrine Systems Flashcards

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1
Q

nervous system

A

-detects and interprets info from the surrounding environment

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2
Q

endocrine system

A

-controls body functions through the use of chemical messengers called hormones

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3
Q

nerve cells

A
  • AKA neurons
  • highly specialized cells that carry impulses between body parts
  • consists of cell body, dendrites, axon terminal, nucleus, myelin sheath
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4
Q

resting state of neuron

A

-polarized (inside of neuron is negatively charged)

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5
Q

resting membrane potential

A
  • around -70 mV

- RMP is set up and maintained by 2 membrane proteins (Na+/K+ ATPase and the K+ leak channel)

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6
Q

sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ ATPase)

A

-protein channel that uses one molecule of ATP to pump 3 Na+ out of the cell and 2 K+ into the cell

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7
Q

leak channels

A

-potassium channels that are always open and will always allow K+ to leak out of the cell according to its gradient, allowing for a negative charge in the membrane

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8
Q

action potential

A
  • once the threshold (-50mV) is reached with a small influx of sodium, voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels open
  • sodium enters the cell with concentration gradient, depolarizing the cell further (until 35 mV) before the sodium channels shut
  • voltage-gated potassium channels open, allowing potassium to exit with the concentration gradient, repolarizing the cell and reaching -90mV before closing
  • membrane proteins return to the RMP
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9
Q

Schwann cells

A

-make up the myelin sheath (speeds rate at which action potential can travel down the axon)

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10
Q

nodes of Ranvier

A

-spaces between the Schwann cells that can fire an action potential

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11
Q

saltatory conduction

A

-the jumping of the axon potential from node to node that increases the traveling of the signal

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12
Q

refractory period

A
  • membrane is unable to fire a second action potential until resting potential is set
  • ensures that signal travels down one direction
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13
Q

synapse

A

-neuron-to-neuron or neuron-to-organ junction that releases neutrosmitter (chemical such as Acetylcholine that can lead to alzheimers disease) to pass the impulse

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14
Q

synaptic cleft

A
  • small gap between neurons
  • neurotransmitters are released into synapse by exocytosis where they diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to the receptors on the dendrites
  • then usually causes the opening of sodium ion channels so sodium flows into the cells, allowing for the threshold to be reached
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15
Q

effects of neurotransmitters

A

-some cause the cell to be stimulated (reach threshold), inhibited (away from threshold)

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16
Q

summation

A

-sum of stimulatory and inhibitory input

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17
Q

CNS

A

-brain and spinal cord that process and integrate info, and then sends decisions to body through PNS

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18
Q

interneurons

A

-part of the CNS that connect sensory and motor neurons

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19
Q

sensory neurons

A

-sends info to the CNS from sensory organs

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20
Q

motor neurons

A

-neurons involved in sending info from the CNS to the organs of the body

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21
Q

frequency of action potential

A

-determines how often the threshold is reached, and therefore how strong the stimulus is

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22
Q

spinal cord

A

-primitive, reflex actions

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23
Q

cerebrum

A

-conscious mind (movement, speech, problem solving, senses)

24
Q

cerebellum

A

-coordinates movement and balance

25
Q

medulla

A

-involuntary actions (breathing, blood pressure regulation)

26
Q

hypothalamus

A
  • maintains homeostasis
  • monitors hormone levels, temperature, etc.
  • controls pituitary gland
27
Q

somatic

A
  • voluntary movement of skeletal muscles

- when acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle, this causes the muscle to depolarize and contract

28
Q

autonomic

A
  • involuntary system
  • sympathetic: fight-or-flight (increases blood pressure, heartrate, breath rate, blood flows toward skeletal muscles)–> involed with noepinephrine
  • parasympathetic: rest-and-digest (mostly uses acetylcholine)
29
Q

ganglia

A
  • clusters of nerve cell bodies along the nerve cord
  • neurons branch from
  • present in arthropods (insects) and annelids (worms)
30
Q

endocrine glands

A

-secrete hormones that can only affect organs with a receptor for that hormone

31
Q

peptide hormones

A
  • amino acid-based
  • bind to receptors outside the cell, quickly turning existing enzymes in the cell on or off
  • insulin, prolactin, glucagon
32
Q

steroid hormones

A
  • cholesterol-based
  • bind to receptors inside the cell (intracellular)
  • bind to DNA and change which genes get transcribed
  • estrogen, testosterone
33
Q

pituitary gland

A
  • master regulatory gland because its hormones control other endocrine glands
  • controlled by the hypothalamus
  • has 2 lobes
34
Q

anterior pituitary gland

A
  • growth hormone (GH)
  • thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  • follicile stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • luteinizing hormone (LH)
  • prolactin
  • for every hormone released by APG, there is a corresponding releasing hormone from the hypothalamus
35
Q

growth hormone (GH)

A
  • target: all tissues and organs
  • important in children
  • in adults, stimulates the cell-turnover rate
36
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

A

-stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormones

37
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

-stimulates adrenal cortex (outer layer of the adrenal gland) to secrete its hormones

38
Q

follicile stimulating hormone (FSH)

A
  • target: gonads
  • causes ova to mature and release estrogen
  • cases sperm to be produced
39
Q

luteinizing hormone (LH)

A
  • target: gonad
  • stimulates ovaries, causes development of a corpus luteum
  • stimulates testes to produce testoterone
40
Q

prolactin

A
  • released after childbirth

- stimulates mammary glands to produce breast milk

41
Q

posterior pituitary gland

A
  • oxytocin: causes uterus to contract during childbirth, causes the mammary glands to release breast milk during feeding
  • antidiuretic hormone (ADH): causes kidneys to retain water (AKA vasopressin)
  • oxytocin and ADH are made in hypothalamus and released by an action potential
42
Q

thyroid gland

A
  • secretes 2 hormones
  • thyroxine (thyroid hormone): affects most of the body’s cells by increasing the rate of metabolism
  • calcitonin: activates special cells in bone that remove calcium from the blood and use it to build new bone (reduce blood calcium levels)
43
Q

hypothyroidism

A
  • lower than normal levels of thryroxine
  • don’t have enough iodine, then not enough thyroxine bc thyroxine contains iron
  • causes low metabolic rate
44
Q

hyperthyroidism

A
  • overproduction of thyroxine

- produces higher than normal metabolic rate accompanied with weight loss and fast heart rate

45
Q

parathyroid glands

A
  • 4 glands that are found on the back of the thyroid gland
  • secretes parathyroid hormone/parathormone (activates special cells inthe bone that dissolve the bone to release calcium into the blood)
46
Q

calcium

A

-functions in nerve impulse conduction, heart contraction, and blood clotting

47
Q

adrenal glands

A
  • located on kidneys

- adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

48
Q

adrenal medulla

A
  • secretes epinephrine (adreneline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
  • both hormones can bind to the same receptors and have the same effects on organs
  • epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla increase and prolong the effects of the Sympathetic NS
49
Q

adrenal cortex

A

-secretes 3 types of steroids: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and sex steroids

50
Q

glucocorticoids

A
  • target: liver
  • cause production of glucose from fats and proteins to release new glucose into the blood (known as gluconeogenesis)
  • target: body cells
  • cause use of fats for fuel instead of glucose, causing an increase in blood glucose levels and increased body metabolism
  • strong anti-inflammatory agents
  • primary ex: cortisol
51
Q

mineralocortocoids

A
  • target: kidney
  • primary ex: aldosterone (causes the retention of sodium in the kidneys)
  • the removal of sodium from the urine causes the removal of H2O, and therefore increases blood volume and pressure
52
Q

sex steroids

A

-produced by adrenal cortex, but mainly from the gonads

53
Q

pancreas

A
  • secretes hormones and digestive enzymes

- secretes insulin and glucagon

54
Q

Islets of Langerhans

A
  • cells in pancreas that produce insulin and glucagon

- AKA islet cells

55
Q

insulin

A
  • secreted when glucose levels are high
  • affects all cells in the body, allowing for cells to take in glucose so they can use it in cellular repsiration
  • stimulates the liver to store glucose as glycogen
  • blood glucose levels decrease
56
Q

glucagon

A
  • released when blood glucose levels are low
  • targets liver
  • causes liver to break down glycogen (stored glucose) and release free glucose into the blood (called glycogenolysis)
  • blood glucose levels increase
57
Q

gonads

A
  • produce gametes and secrete hormones (sex steroids)
  • testes and ovaries
  • male sex steroid: androgen (primary type is testosterone)
  • female sex steroid: estrogens (most common is estradiol) and progesterone
  • estrogen: stimulates growth of uterin lining in menstrual cycle, progesterone maintains the lining in the second half

Cracking the SAT Biology E/M Subject Test (14 decks)

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