Chapter 11 Flashcards
Problem solving
used when you want to reach a specified goal; however, the solution is not immediately obvious because you are missing important information and/or it is not clear how to reach the goal
What 3 components does every problem include?
- the initial state
- the goal state
- the obstacles
initial state
the situation at the beginning of the problem
goal state
reached when you solve the problem
obstacles
the restrictions that make it difficult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state
Thinking
requires you to go beyond the information you were given, so that you can reach a goal; the goal may be a solution, a belief, or a decision
Understanding
means that you have constructed a well-organized mental representation of the problem, based on both the information provided in the problem and your own previous experience
Problem representation
refers to the way you translate the elements of the problem into a different format
Matrix
a grid consisting of rows and columns; it shows all possible combinations of items
Hierarchical tree diagram
a figure that uses a tree-like structure to show various possible options in a problem
Situated cognition approach
we often use helpful information in our immediate environment to create spatial representations
Embodied cognition approach
we often use our own body and our own motor actions, in order to express our abstract thoughts and knowledge
Algorithm
a method that will always produce a solution to the problem, although the process can sometimes be inefficient
Exhaustive search
one example of an algorithm in which you try out all possible answers using a specified system
Analogy approach
you employ a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help you solve a new problem
Problem isomorphs
a term used to refer to a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different specific details
Surface features
specific objects and terms used in the question (obvious information)
Structural features
the underlying core that they must understand in order to solve the problem correctly
Means-ends heuristic
requires you to identify the “ends” (or final result) that you want and then figure out the “means” or methods that you will use to reach those ends
General Problem Solver (GPS)
a program whose basic strategy is means-ends analysis. The goal of the GPS is to mimic the processes that normal humans use when they tackle these problems
Hill-climbing heuristic
choosing the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal
Expertise
individual demonstrates consistently exceptional skill and performance on representative tasks for a particular area
Parallel processing
handles two or more items at the same time
Serial processing
handles only one item at a time
Mental set
you keep trying the same solution you used in previous problems, even though you could solve the problem by using a different, easier method
Fixed mindset
you believe that you possess a certain amount of intelligence and other skills, and no amount of effort can help you perform better
Growth mindset
you believe that you can cultivate your intelligence and other skills; challenge yourself to perform better
Functional fixedness
we tend to assign stable (or fixed) functions to an object; as a result, we fail to think about the features of this object that might be useful in helping us solve a problem
Stereotype threat
if you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype–and you think about your membership in that group–your performance may suffer
Insight problem
the problem initially seems impossible to solve, but then an alternative approach suddenly bursts into your consciousness. You immediately realize that your new solution is correct
Noninsight problem
you solve the problem gradually, by using your memory, reasoning skills, and a routine set of strategies
Creativity
requires solutions that are both novel and useful
Divergent production
the number of different responses made to a test item
Convergent production
asks the test-taker to supply a single, best response, and the researchers measure the quality of that response
extrinsic motivation
motivation to work on a task–not because you find it enjoyable–but in order to earn a promised reward or to win a competition
Intrinsic motivation
the motivation to work on tasks for their own sake, because you find them interesting, exciting, or personally challenging
Self-efficacy
the belief that you have the ability to organize and carry out a specific task
Perseverance
the ability to keep working on a task, even when you encounter obstacles
