Chapter 10: Motivation and Emotion Flashcards
True or false, goals can be the result of both intentional and automatic activation?
true
What are motives?
the needs, wants, interests, and desires that send people in certain directions
What time was the Drive theory explored the most, and by who?
Clark Hull, in 1940s and 1950s
What do drive theories apply to behaviour?
applies homeostasis to behaviour
What is a drive?
an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension
True or false, homeostasis is irrelevant to some human motives?
true! such as a thirst for knowledge
does motivation exist without drive arousal? ie. getting popcorn or ice cream after a movie because of an advertisment, not because you’re hungry
yes
What is the disadvantage to drive theories?
They cannot explain all motivation, such as motivation without drive
True or false, incentive theories propose that external stimuli regulate motivation
true
What is incentive?
an external goal that can motivate behaviour
True or false, drive theories emphasize how internal states of tension push people in certain directions
true
True or false, incentive theories emphasize how external stimuli pull people in certain directions
true
When speaking of drive theories, the source of motivation lies:
outside or within the individual?
within the individual
When speaking of incentive theories, does the source of motivation lie within our outside of the individual?
outside
Do incentive theories or drive theories operate according to the principle of homeostasis?
drive
What theory emphasizes environmental factors and downplays the biological bases of motivation
Incentive theory
According to expectancy-value models, ones motivation to pursue a particular course of action will depend on what two factors?
1– expectancy, about ones chances of obtaining the incentive
2– value, of desired incentive
What is the evolutionary theory of motivation?
explaining motives in terms of dominance, aggression, and sex drive in terms of their adaptive value..
What are the two agreed upon types of motives humans have?
biological and social
identify 3 biological motives and 3 social motives
biological: thirst, hunger, and sex
social: play, achievement, and autonomy (independence)
True or false, people have a limited number of biological needs
true
According to K.B Madsen, most theories identify 10-15 biological needs, but people can acquire social motives through what?
socialization and learning
What is Henry Murray associated with?
Social motives
When speaking of social motives associated with Henry Murray, what do the following motives mean?
Affiliation, nurturance, and exhibition
Affiliation: the need for social bonds
Nurturance: the need to care for others
Exhibition: the need to make an impression on others
Do social motives vary from person to person? If so, why?
yes, because off learning and socialization
What are the three motives that most psychologists study in detail?
hunger, sex, and achievement
What do evolutionary psychologists believe is behind motives?
products of evolution and natural selection
In 1912, Walter Cannon and Washburn studied hunger.. what did they find out?
there is an association between stomach contractions and hunger
What “controls” hunger?
hypothalamus
in the 1940s and 1950s, what brain structures did we believe controlled hunger?
Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) and Ventromedical Nucleus of the Hypothalamus (VMH)
What brain structures do we believe control hunger today?
2 parts of the hypothalamus:
Arcutate Nucleus and paraventricular nucleus
the arcutate is very important
True or False, Contemporary theories of hunger focus more on neural circuits that pass through the hypothalamus rather than anatomical centres in the brain
True
What is glucose and how is it made?
a simple sugar that is a source of energy, made by food taken into the body which is converted
Do actions that decrease blood glucose levels increase or decrease hunger?
increase hunger
What does the glucostatic theory propose?
that fluctuations in blood glucose level are monitored in the brain where they influence hunger feelings
What part of the thalamus is sensitive to glucose fluctuations that contribute to the modulation of eating?
The arcutate nucleus
Where is insulin secreted from, and what is it?
a hormone secreted by the pancreas
The more insulin secreted, the more what?
hunger feelings
What is ghrelin, and when is it secreted?
after going without food for a while, and it is a hormone secreted to create stomach contractions
What is CCK and when is it secreted?
It is secreted after food is consumed, it reduces hunger
What is leptin, and what does it do?
hormone, in charge of regulation of hunger and other bodily functions
How is leptin produced?
through fat cells.. Higher levels of fat= higher levels of leptin
true or false, the higher leptin in your blood stream, the less you feel hunger
true
Where do the hormones (insulin, ghrelin, CCK, and leptin) converge in the body? 1 brain structure, 2 exact spots
Hypothalamus, arcuate and paraventricular nuclei
True or false, hunger is regulated by environmental factors as well as biological
true
What are 3 environmental factors of hunger regulation?
1– availability of food
2– learned preferences/ habits
3– stress
If a psychologist believes that hunger is related to incentives, what 4 variables exert significant influence over food consumption?
1) palatability- better it tastes, more you eat
2) quantity available- more food avail, more you eat
3) variety- more variety, more you eat
4) presence of others- more people, more you eat
What is sensory-specific satiety?
as you eat a specific food, the incentive value declines.
think: only doritos and tortillas every day, they wouldn’t seem so appealing after a while
true or false, hunger and eating are governed in part by incentive qualities of food?
true
true or false, learning wields a great deal of influence over what people prefer to eat
true
true or false, taste preferences are partly a function of learned associations formed through classical conditioning
true
think: food poisoning bout, that food is paired with a crappy stimulus, therefore it was classically conditioned
True or false, eating habits are shaped by observational learning
true
think: seeing parents eat a food, you’re more likely to try it
true or false, people can have a genetic vulnerability to obesity
true
true or false, for overweight people, their energy intake from food exceeds their energy expenditure
True
Stanley Schachter created the “externality hypothesis” of obesity. Explain what it is..
obese people are extra sensitive to external cues that effect hunger and are insensitive to internal physiological cues
What was wrong with Schacter’s externality hypothesis according to researchers today?
it was oversimplified and overstated
true or false, today, we believe that external cues do have a greater impact on the food intake of obese individuals
True
Who made the distinction between normative and sensory external cues, and what are they?
Herman and Polivy.
Normative cues- socially appropriate food intake (what, when, how)
Sensory cues- palatability
What type of cues do Herman and Polivy argue that obese people are especially sensitive to?
Sensory external
Is the externality hypothesis relevant today?
yes
Who created the idea of a “set point?”
Richard Keesey
What is a set point?
A natural point of stability in body weight
What does the set point theory propose?
that the body monitors fat-cell levels to keep them (and weight) fairly stable
What is the settling point theory?
Weight tends to remain stable as long as there are no durable changes in any of the factors that influence it
Would hunger increase or decrease if the ventromedial nucleus of a rat’s brain is destroyed by lesioning?
increase
Would hunger increase or decrease if the glucose level in Marlene’s bloodstream decreases?
increase
Would hunger increase or decrease if Norman just ate, but his roommate just brought home pizza?
increase
Would hunger increase or decrease if you’re offered an exotic, strange-looking food from a different culture and told that everyone in that culture likes it?
most likely decrease
Would hunger increase or decrease if you are just given an injection of leptin?
decrease
Would hunger increase or decrease if you’re stressed?
most likely increase
Would hunger increase or decrease if you broke away from a diet?
increase
Which type of theory explains motives in terms of their adaptive value?
evolutionary or drive theories
evolutionary
Are lateral and ventromedial areas of the hypothalamus (on-off centres) or the Arcuate and paraventricular areas and neural circuits more important in todays theory of hunger?
Arcuate and paraventricular
Identify the 4 phases of the human sexual response and what happens during each
1) Excitement– physical arousal happens quickly, blood vessels swell
2) Plateau- slow arousal, tightening of vaginal entrance, preejaculate
3) Orgasm- Peak arousal intensity, muscle contractions
4) Resolution- refractory period, all changes subside
What is vasocongestion?
When blood vessels engorge
What happens during the excitement phase of the sexual response?
Vasocongestion and increased heart rate/respiratory rate
What happens during the plateau phase of the sexual response
Women continue to have vasocongestion which leads to tightening
Men may release pre-ejaculate
Fluctuations of arousal
What happens during the orgasm phase of sexual response?
increase in heart rate, increase in respiratory rate, muscle contraction
What happens during the resolution phase of sexual responses?
physiological changes subside, refractory period
What is Robert Triver’s “Parental Investment” theory?
a species mating patterns depend on what each sex has to invest to produce and nurture offspring
(in terms of time, energy, and survival risk)
What question does motivation answer about human behaviour?
Why
True or false, we can only infer why someone is motivated to do something
true
Does intelligence desire to conquer or to be harmonious?
intelligence desires to conquer
wisdom desires to be harmonious
What are the 6 ways theorists see people and their life/motivation?
hint: machines
1- pawns of fate 2- similar to animals 3- masters of fate 4- unconscious beings 5- similar to machines 6- social products
Identify the 5 different types of drives
1- regulatory 2- safety 3- reproductive 4- social 5- educative
What does a regulatory drive do?
statis homeostasis needs
hunger, thirst
they promote survival
What does a safety drive do?
protect us from danger, avoiding pain and injury
What is a reproductive drive responsible for?
caring for offspring, jealousy
Is a reproductive drive powerful?
yes, very
What are social drives responsible for?
achievement etc
What are educative drives responsible for?
Learning, curiosity, and exploring
Explain the optimal arousal theory
hint: what if arousal is too high or too low?
If arousal is too high, you will become dormant
If arousal is too low, you will become active
think: exam: HIGH arousal, LOW performance OR
sensory deprivation: LOW arousal, HIGH emotion
Explain the evolutionary theory of human motivation
hint: why do people act certain ways?
Human motives are a result of evolution, behaviours that are successful reproductively are continued on.
Males and Females differ in what makes them jealous. What makes a woman jealous, typically?
Emotional infidelity
Men consistently overestimate women’s ______ and women underestimate men’s ______
Desire for sex
Commitment
What is “wrong” with the evolutionary theory of motivation? Give 3 reasons why it could be considered “wrong”
Emphasizes biological determinism
Legitimizes social constructs and arrangements
Ignores cultural and social factors
What is a drive stimulus?
A stimulus that directs behaviour
eg. low glucose= hunger
What is an incentive and what does it do to drives?
reduces drive state, eliminating exploratory drive
food- hunger
sleep-tiredness
What does an instrumental act do to a drive?
brings you to the presence of the incentive..
think: getting up and going to the washroom
What is a consummatory response, and what does it do to a drive?
eliminates drive
drinking when thirsty, ejaculating, peeing when you need to
What is the difference between a primary and secondary drive?
Primary drive: for tissue needs/survival ALWAYS HOMEOSTATIC
Secondary drive: learned drives
True or false, a primary drive is always homeostatic
true
You’re in a hot yoga class.. you decide you want some water..
is a primary or secondary drive directing you to drink water? why?
Primary, because having water is a tissue need, and is also homeostatic
What does homeostatic mean?
When your body seeks and maintains a balance or equilibrium within it’s internal environment
True or false, an incentive theory would be considered part of a pull theory
true
Explain the incentive theory
External stimulus pulls you
eg. BA, promotion
Does the incentive theory or pull theory rely on homeostatic drives?
no
Explain what the expectancy value model is, and what theory it fits in with
Fits in with incentive or pull theory
expectancy: what are the chances you can achieve this?
value: how much do you value this, how important is it?
when you have HIGH expectancy and HIGH value, you have HIGH motivation
True or false, according to the expectancy value model (incentive theory) what happens if you have HIGH expectancy and HIGH value of a particular goal?
you will have HIGH motivation
What are the 3 Antecedents of behaviour?
1– Deprivation–> no food, higher drive level OR no patterned stim. brain issues
2– Stimulational factors–> Attractive=move towards
3– History of organism–> learning, experience, culture
When speaking of the antecedents of behaviour, what is meant by Stimulational factors?
when something is attractive, you move toward it
When speaking of antecedents of behaviour, what is meant by history of the organism?
Behaviour will depend on the learning, experience, and culture of the organism
What benefit comes from men overestimating womens sexual desire for them?
to ensure that males do not overlook sexual opportunities
What does evolutionary theory predict about mate selection in males?
looking for females with:
youthfullness
attractivness
What does evolutionary theory predict about women’s mate selection?
Women look for men who: intelligence ambition income and social status
When speaking of mate selection, what does Roy Baumeister find?
the gender disparity in sexual motivation may be because of cultural processes that serve to supress female sexuality
True or false, so far, there haven’t been studies that find a correlation between pornography and sex crimes
True
True or false, according to the parental investment theory, males are thought to compete with other males for reproductive opportunities and females are the discriminating sex
True
What did Alfred Kinsey discover about sexual behaviour and homosexuality?
People who define themselves as homosexual have had homosexual experiences
What do psychoanalyst and behaviourist theorists agree on about homosexuality?
They both proposed environmental explanations for the development of homosexuality
True or false, Freudian theorists argue that if a male is raised by a weak, detached father who is a poor heterosexual role model, and by an overprotective, close-binding mother, the child will grow up to be homosexual?
True
How do behaviourists explain homosexuality? How is it learned?
Same sex stimuli paired with sexual arousal
Has research supported or contradicted environmental theories of homosexuality?
Contradicted.. they were not able to find supporting information from studies
Does parent’s homosexuality have anything to do with children’s sexual orientation?
No
True or false, gender non-conformity in childhood is a precursor for homosexuality in adulthood (Environmental Theory)
True
True or false, there is an aspect of genetics involved in homosexuality?
Yes
What is the main Biological theory behind homosexuality today?
Effects of prenatal hormones on neurological development
What is achievement motive?
the need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others, and to meet high standards of excellence
What does David McClelland have to say about the achievement motive?
That it is of the utmost importance for the functioning and growth of society
How does the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) measure “need for achievement” in subjects?
it’s a projective test, so it may reveal personal motives and traits
asked to explain what is happening in the picture and what the people are feeling
True or false, people who score high on the achievement motivation scale tend to work harder and more persistently than most people
True
True or false, someone who scores high on the achievement motivation scale tend to be better at delaying gratification
True
What has John Atkinson said about situational factors that determine behaviour?
The strength of ones motivation to achieve success– STABLE
Ones estimate of the probability of success– VARIES TASK 2 TASK
The Incentive value of success– DEP. ON REWARDS 4 TASK
True or false, according to Atkinson, people vary their motivation to avoid failure
True
What are the 3 components of emotion?
1) subjective conscious experience (cognitive)
2) bodily arousal (physiological)
3) overt expressions (behavioural)
What is the cognitive component of emotion?
Subjective feelings and evaluation of said feelings
emotions happen to us for the most part, and we have little control
True or false, we’re not very good at anticipating our emotional responses to the future? (affective forcasting)
true
What is affective forecasting?
efforts to predict one’s emotional responses to future events
Why are our predictions of our emotional reactions so inaccurate?
we’re quite effective at rationalizing and overlooking failures
True or false, most of the discernible physiological arousal associated with emotion occurs through the actions of the Autonomic N.S
True
What does the Autonomic Nervous system regulate?
regulates activity of glands, smooth muscles, and blood vessels
fight or flight
True or false, the fight or flight response (ANS) is modulated by the release of adrenal hormones
true
What is the galvanic skin response? (GSR)
increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when sweat glands increase activity
used to measure emotion in lab studies
How does a polygraph work?
records autonomic fluctuations while a subject is questioned
What did Leonard Saxe have to say about polygraph validity?
That there is no evidence of a unique physiological reaction to decieit
Where are the autonomic responses that accompany emotions controlled?
in the brain!
When was Affective Neuroscience created and what is it?
mid-1990s
neurobiology of emotions
True or false, newest research suggests that the amygdala plays a central role in the acquisition of conditioned fears
True
According to Joseph LeDoux, sensory inputs capable of eliciting emotions arrive in the thalamus and travel alone 2 separate pathways.. what are these pathways and what do they specialize in?
1) Fast path to nearby amygdala, processes quickly, instantly triggers neural activity that leads to autonomic arousal
2) slower pathway to areas in the cortex
True or false, the amygdala can process emotion independent of cognitive awareness
true
True or false, the amygdala plays a large role in processing fear responses
True
What is the prefrontal cortex known for?
It’s role in planning and control
Modulating emotions associated with pursuit of goals
What is the front portion of the cingulate cortex responsible for?
processing of pain related emotions
True or false, the cingulate cortex is activated when people wrestle with emotion laden conflicts about choices
True
What is the mesolimbic dopamine pathway involved in?
Pleasurable experience associated with rewarding events
Activated by drugs
What are mirror neurons, and what activates them?
Play a critical role in empathy
Activated by performing an action or by seeing another person perform the same action
What is the facial feedback hypothesis?
facial muscles send signals to the brain and that these signals help the brain recognize the emotion that one is experiencing
True or false, facial expressions have been thought to be innate?
True
What do evolutionary theories say about emotion?
emotions are largely innate reactions to stimuli
emotion precedes thought
evolution has equipped humans with a small number of emotions that have adaptive value
What are the three components of achievement motivation?
Performance goals- particular stance of excellence (getting an A)
Avoidance goals- driven to avoid failure
Fear of success- avoid opportunities
Explain the affiliation drive
the need to be able to affiliate with people and maintain social bonds
Explain the power drive
the need to tell others what to do, control behaviour
Is there a gender difference of the power drive?
no
What is considered “normal” human sexuality? Hint: 3 times everyone thinks sex is normal
1) When there is guaranteed procreation
2) Moral/Religious codes
3) Most common
What do sexual scripts do?
The depiction of sexuality tells us what/when is appropriate
How to act, who initiates
Explain erotic plasticity
The amount of how sexual attitudes are shaped by things
What is the gate control theory?
The amount of stimulation that closes the gate on pain receivers
Think: When kissing outdoors, you freeze to the wall
What is the path that pain follows? hint: 5 steps
1) Stub toe, nerve ending sends pain signals
2) P substance is released
3) travels the spinal cord
4) Thalamus interprets and sends signal around brain, first feeling
5) Cortex interprets pain, this is when you would say ow
What percentage of pain can we control in patients?
75%
True or false, suffering is the potential loss of meaning in life
True
True or false, one can have pain without suffering and vice versa
True
What are the three components of emotion?
1) emotional experience
2) physiological changes –> arousal
3) emotional behaviour –> laughing
True or false, all emotional experiences are triggered similarily, ie. being happy and surprised are created the same way
True
True or false, emotion typically is just a transient state, moods tend to last longer than emotions
True
True or false, emotion is valient.. it is either negative or positive
True
True or false, emotion alters thought
true
True or false, emotion causes behaviour to change
True
True or false, emotion involves passion, sometimes we can’t control them
True
True or false, emotions are only in part cognitive
True
True or false, the intensity of emotion depends on the amount of feedback travelling up or down the spinal cord?
True
What would happen to someone who has a high spinal injury?
Less bodily sensation
Explain the common sense theory of emotion
Think: when does arousal occur? When does sensory occur?
Sensory experience, then arousal
think: going to the movies, being scared
Explain the James-Lang theory of emotion
The perception of bodily changes IS the emotion
think: anxiety sensitivity, you feel things happening, you become anxious
Explain the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
All at once, the physiological changes and emotion sensation.
thalamus has the central role
Explain Schacter’s 2 factor theory of emotion
You have physiological changes, then you make a cognitive interpretation of your surroundings.
shaking, I must be nervous for this exam
“this is why I am feeling”
Explain Solomon’s opponent process theory of emotion
Used to maintain optimal arousal
what goes up, must come down
Explain Ekman’s Facial Feedback theory
If you smile, you’ll feel happy
changes in facial expressions actually change the temp of the blood going to the brain
Explain the Le-Doux theory of emotion
Emotional responses come from amygdala then give feedback and create physiological changes
feelings are created by sub-cortical mechanisms.. think: grabbing a handrail while falling down stairs, you don’t realize you grabbed it
In theories of motivation, drive theories have declined in importance.. why?
Biological drives have very little, if any influence on human motivation
True or false, all human motives are powerfully shaped by social and cultural factors
True
True or false, drives can’t be accurately measured
True
Emotional states which develop with cognitive maturity are referred to as what?
Secondary
Whereas the left prefrontal cortex appears to be specialized for_____, the right prefrontal cortex appears to be specialized for ______.
Approach; withdraw
In collectivist societies, shame and loss of face would be considered______
primary or secondary?
Primary
What effects our experience of pain?
1) Expectations- if you expect pain at a dentist, it may not be that bad
2) Past experience with pain
3) Cultural and gender experiences of pain
What 4 characteristics are associated with those who are more supseptible to pain?
1) lack of motivation
2) poor self concept
3) lack significant pride in achievement
4) greater dependency on others
