Chapter 10- Learning

Question 1

Nonassociative learning

Answer 1

Occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus; types: habituation & sensitization

Question 2

Habit

Answer 2

An action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic, and habituation follows a very similar process; “tune out” stimulus

Question 3

Dishabituation

Answer 3

Occurs when the previously habituated stimulus is removed; if the stimulus were presented again, the person will react to it as if it were a new stimulus and is likely to respond even more strongly to it than before

Question 4

Sensitization

Answer 4

When there is an increase in responsiveness due to either a repeated application of s stimulus or a particularly aversive or noxious stimulus; stimulus produces a more exaggerated response

Question 5

Classical conditioning

Answer 5

Described by Ivan Pavlov and is sometimes called Pavlovian conditioning; occurs when a neutral stimulus, paired with a previously meaningful stimulus, eventually takes on some meaning itself; John Watson demonstrated with Little Albert

Question 6

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 6

The initially neutral stimuli

Question 7

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Answer 7

The initially meaningful stimulus

Question 8

Unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 8

The naturally occurring response; the response to the US does not have to be learned

Question 9

Conditioned response (CR)

Answer 9

The response to the CS after conditioning

Question 10

Forward conditioning

Answer 10

In which the CS is presented before the US, can be further divided into delay conditioning

Question 11

Delay conditioning

Answer 11

In which the CS is present until the US begins

Question 12

Trace conditioning

Answer 12

In which the CS is removed some time before the US is presented

Question 13

Generalization

Answer 13

Grouping things together that look alike

Question 14

Discrimination

Answer 14

Distinguishing among similar but distinct stimuli

Question 15

Acquisition

Answer 15

Takes place when the paring of the natural and neutral stimuli have occurred with enough frequency that the neutral stimulus alone will elicit the conditional response

Question 16

Extinction

Answer 16

The elimination of the conditioned response; can be achieved by presenting the CS without the US repeatedly

Question 17

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 17

Where the original response disappears on its own, but then is elicited again by the previous CS at a later time; occurs when the CR reappears quickly but less strongly after the subject has been re-exposed to the pairing of the original neutral stimulus and US; demonstrates that even though the learning is not evident during the extinction period, the association between the CS and CR is still stored in the brain

Question 18

Second-order conditioning

Answer 18

A previous CS now is used as the US; a special case of higher order conditioning, which, in theory, can go up to any order as new CSs are linked to old ones

Question 19

Contiguity approach

Answer 19

Pavlov and Watson believed that the pairing of the neutral and natural stimuli occurred because they are paired in time

Question 20

Contingency approach

Answer 20

Robert Rescorla believes that the CS and US get paired because the CS comes to predict the US; demonstrated through blocking, in which a natural stimulus was paired with two neutral stimuli

Question 21

Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)

Answer 21

Involved an organism’s learning to make a response in order to obtain a reward; B.F. Skinner pioneered the study; Edward L. Thornlike discovered operant conditioning and proposed the law of effect: a behavior is more likely to recur if reinforced

Question 22

B.F. Skinner and operant conditioning

Answer 22

Trained rats to press a lever in order to get food

Question 23

Shaping with rat experiment

Answer 23

A rat first receives a food reward for being near the lever, then for touching the lever, and finally for pressing the lever; also referred to as differential reinforcement of successive approximations

Question 24

Natural reinforcement

Answer 24

Doesn’t need to be learned to be reinforced; example food

Question 25

Primary reinforcement

Answer 25

Provided by natural reinforcers, food, water, sex

Question 26

Secondary reinforcement

Answer 26

Provided by learned reinforcers; example money

Question 27

Positive reinforcement

Answer 27

A reward or event that increases the likelihood that a particular type of response will be repeated

Question 28

Negative reinforcement

Answer 28

The removal of an aversive event in order to encourage the behavior

Question 29

Omission training

Answer 29

Seeks to decrease the frequency of behavior by withholding the reward until the desired behavior is demonstrated

Question 30

Schedule of reinforcement

Answer 30

Refers to how often an organism receives reinforcement for a given type of response

Question 31

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Answer 31

Every correct response that is emitted results in a reward

Question 32

Partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedules

Answer 32

Schedules of reinforcement in which not all responses are reinforced

Question 33

Fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 33

One in which the reward always occurs after a fixed number of responses

Question 34

Variable-ratio schedule

Answer 34

One in which the ratio responses to reinforcement is variable and unpredictable; example slot machine

Question 35

Fixed interval schedule

Answer 35

One in which reinforcement is pressured as a function of fixed periods of time, as long as there is at least one response; example salaried employee

Question 36

Variable interval schedule

Answer 36

Reinforcement is presented at differing time intervals, as long as there is at least one response

Question 37

Punishment vs. reinforcement

Answer 37

Reinforcement increases behavior, while punishment decreases it; punishment is the process by which a behavior is followed by a consequence that decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated; positive punishment involves the application, or pairing, of a negative stimulus with the behavior; punishment involves the removal of a reinforcing stimulus after the behavior has occurred

Question 38

Escape

Answer 38

An individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior; helps reinforce the behavior so they will be willing to engage in it again

Question 39

Avoidance

Answer 39

Occurs when a person performs a behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is not presented

Question 40

Token economy

Answer 40

An artificial economy based on tokens; these tokens act as secondary reinforcers, in that the tokens can be used for purchasing primary reinforcers such as food

Question 41

Learned helplessness

Answer 41

Occurs when consistent effort fails to bring rewards; if this situation persists, the subject will stop trying; Martin Seligman’s dog and electric floor example

Question 42

Donald Hebb

Answer 42

Proposed that human learning takes place by neurons forming new connections with one another or by the strengthening of connections that already exist

Question 43

Eric Kandel

Answer 43

A neuroscientist; examined classical conditioning in aplysia; paired a light touch (CS) with a shock (US); this pairing causes the aplysia to withdraw its full (UCR)

Question 44

Neuromodulators

Answer 44

Strengthen the synapses between the sensory neurons and the motor neurons involved

Question 45

Long-term potentiation

Answer 45

A physiological change that correlates with a relatively stable change in behavior as a result of experience; involves both presynaptic and post synaptic neurons at a given synapse;

Question 46

Social learning

Answer 46

(Observational learning); learning based on observing the behavior of others as well as the consequences of that behavior; vicarious learning

Question 47

Albert Bandura

Answer 47

Research on social learning; children watch films of adults beating up an inflatable clown doll called Bobo; illustrated modeling

Question 48

Baduras four conditions for observational learning

Answer 48

Learner must pay attention to the behavior in question; behavior must be remembered; motivation for learner to produce behavior at later time; potential for reproduction of learned behavior

Question 49

Conditioned taste aversion (CTA)

Answer 49

Aka Garcia effect; John Garcia demonstrated that animals that eat a food that results in nausea induced by a drug or radiation will not eat that food if they ever encounter it again; research showed certain species are built to learn certain associations more easily then others, and it shows that classical conditioning might be occurring through the access of some concept

Question 50

Stimulus generalization

Answer 50

Creating an aversion to similar things you don’t like

Question 51

Edward Tolman

Answer 51

Rats in a maze with and without a reinforcer; cognitive representation: mental representation of the maze; latent learning: learning that is not outwardly expressed until the situation calls for it

Question 52

Learning

Answer 52

A relatively permanent or stable change in behavior as a result of experience