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Biology > Chapter 10 - Classification and Evolution > Flashcards

Chapter 10 - Classification and Evolution Flashcards

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1
Q

Taxonomy

A

➜ study of biological classification

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2
Q

Taxon

A

➜ each group in hierarchical system is called taxon (taxa = plural)

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3
Q

Taxonomic groups

A

➜ 7 groups ordered in a hierarchy

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4
Q

The 7 Groups

A

➜ Kingdom - King
➜ Phylum - Philip
➜ Class - Came
➜ Order - Over
➜ Family - For
➜ Genus - Gay
➜ Species - Sex

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5
Q

How to order the groups per living thing?

KING PHILLIP CAME OVER FOR GAY SEX!!!

A

e.g Wolf
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
Genus: Canis
Species: lupus

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6
Q

Binomial System

A

➜ binomial are the scientific names given to individuals species
➜ consist of the organism’s genus and species name in modern Latin
e.g Humans - Homo sapiens
e.g dogs - Canis familiaris

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7
Q

Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus

A

➜ developed and established the naming convention - binomial system
➜ this was to avoid confusion about what group of organisms scientists are talking about
➜ always italicized or underlined
e.g Yeast - Saccharomyces cerevisiae or when abbreviated S. cerevisiae

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8
Q

Domain

A

➜ highest taxonomic rank in the system
e.g Archaea, the Bacteria, and the Eukarya

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9
Q

Archaea

A

➜ sometimes referred to as the extremophile prokaryotes as they were first discovered living in extreme environments
➜ no nucleus
➜ initially classed as bacteria until discovering unique properties:
↳ unique lipids found in membrane - consist of branched hydrocarbons bonded to glycerol by ether linkage

↳ no peptidoglycan in cell walls

↳ ribosomal structure similar to
eukaryotic ribosome than bacteria - such as the base sequence and primary structure of ribosome proteins

➜ similar size range as bacteria
➜ Transcription similar to eukaryotes
e.g Halobacterium salinarum - found in environments with high salt conc

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10
Q

Bacteria

A

➜ organisms with prokaryotic cells which have no nucleus
➜ vary in size
➜ divide via binary fission
e.g Staphylococcus pneumoniae - causes pneumonia

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11
Q

Eukarya

A

➜ contain nuclei and are membrane bound organelles
➜ massively vary in size
➜ single celled organisms and large multicellular organisms exist
➜ divide by mitosis
➜ can reproduce sexually and asexually
e.g canis lupus - wolves

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12
Q

Kingdoms

A

➜ living things are divided into 5 kingdoms
↳ Prokaryota
↳ Protoctista
↳ fungi
↳ Plantae
↳ Animalia
➜ was thought to be the top of classification hierarch before domains were introduced

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13
Q

Prokaryota

A

➜ includes bacteria and blue-green bacteria
➜ unicellular & have cell walls & cytoplasm & small ribosomes
➜ no nucleus or mitochondria
➜ less than 5µm but vary in size
➜ divide by binary fission
➜ blue green bacteria and some bacteria = autotrophic (photosynthetic)
➜ many bacteria = heterotrophic (feeding on living or dead organic materials) like hoomans x
➜ no visible feeding mechanism - absorbed via cell wall

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14
Q

Kingdom Protoctista

A

➼ eukaryotic cells (so they have nucleus duh)
➼ unicellular or single celled
➼ no cell wall and similar to animal cells - known as protozoa
➼ some have chloroplasts and cellulose cell walls - known as algae
➼ usually live in water

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15
Q

Kingdom Fungi

A

➜ eukaryotic
➜ chitin cell wall and no cilia
➜ heterotrophs - obtain energy and carbon by digesting dead/decaying matter extracellularly or from being parasites on living organisms
➜ unicellular or multicellular organisms
➜ store food as glycogen
➜ some consist of long threads (hyphae) that grow from main fungus body and form a network of filaments called mycelium
➜ larger fungi have fruiting bodies to release large number of spores
➜ reproduce using spores that disperse

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16
Q

Kingdom Plantae

A

➜ eukaryotic
➜ multicellular
➜ cellulose cell wall and large vacuoles for structural support
➜ able to differentiate into specialized cells to form tissues and organs
➜ photosynthesise with chloroplasts
➜ sometimes have flagella
➜ autotrophic (produce their own food)

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17
Q

Kingdom Animalia

A

➜ eukaryotic
➜ able to differentiate into many different specialised cell types that can form tissues and organs
➜ small temporary vacuoles e.g lysosomes
➜ no cell walls
➜ sometimes have cilia
➼ heterotrophic and have wide range of feeding mechanisms
➜ communication - nervous system and chemical signalling

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18
Q

Phylogeny

A

➼ study of evolutionary history of groups of organisms
➼ tells us who’s related to whom and how closely related they are
➼ all organisms have evolved from shared common ancestors
➼ species is the smallest group that shares a common ancestor

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19
Q

homology

A

➜ organisms were grouped based on their features
➜ features are homologous if they are shared by organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor
➜ many limitations due to using physical features of species = lead to wrong classification

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20
Q

Sequencing tech

A

➜ scientists choose specific proteins/sections of genome
➜ look at multiple proteins or regions = for accuracy
➜ protein used needs to be present in a wide range of organisms and show sufficient variation between species
➜ cytochrome c is often used as it is an integral protein to respiration
➜ 2 groups or organisms with very similar sequences = separated into diff species more recently than 2 groups with less similarity

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21
Q

DNA Analysis and Comparison

A

➜ DNA extracted from nuclei - via blood/skin/fossils
➜ extracted DNA processed, analysed and base sequence obtained
➜ compared to other organisms to:
➼ identify species
➼ predict characteristics
➼ find evolutionary links

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22
Q

Immunology: using antibodies in classification

A

➜ protein albumin is found in many species and is commonly used for these experiments
Method:
- Pure albumin samples extracted from blood of multiple species
- Each pure albumin sample injected into a diff rabbit
- Each rabbit produces antibodies for that specific type of albumen
- different antibodies are extracted from the different rabbits and are then mixed with the different albumin samples
- precipitate (antibody-antigen complexes) resulting from each mixed sample is weighed

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23
Q

Results and Interpretation of experiment:

A

➜ ↑ the weight of precipitate = ↑ the degree of complementarity between the antibody and albumin

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24
Q

Two key sources of evidence for the theory of evolution by natural selection include:

A

➜ Fossil evidence
➜ Molecular evidence - our understanding of genetics to see what characteristics were passed on to offspring

25
Q

Molecular evidence

A

➜ 3 types of data used to investigate evolutionary relationships: DNA, mRNA, Amino acids
➜ DNA/mRNA are sequenced and used to provide evidence of how the genetic code of species has changed as they have evolved as it shows us the order of the bases
➜ more similar the sequence the more closely related the species are
➜ used to compare with extinct species
➜ proteins can be used to imply evolutionary relationship in 2 species as they can have similar sequences of amino acids CYTOCHROME C as its used by every organism that requires

26
Q

Fossil evidence

A

➜ are preserved remains of organisms or other features left by organisms, such as footprints, burrows and faeces
➜ we can tell that environments have changed significantly
➜ can be dated so we can see how organisms changed over time
➜ show similarities between extinct species

27
Q

Embryological evidence

A

➼ similarities in the early stages of an organism’s development

28
Q

Anatomical evidence

A

➼ similarities in structure and function of different body parts

29
Q

Behavioural evidence

A

➼ similarities in behaviour and social organisation of organisms

30
Q

Variation

A

➼ refers to the differences that exist between two or more things
➜ genetic variation = variation in genotypes
➜ phenotypic variation

31
Q

Intraspecific

A

➼ variation within a species
➜ phenotypic variation of same species can be due to qualitative or quantitative differences

32
Q

Interspecific

A

➼ variation between different species
➜ can be useful in identifying and classifying different species

33
Q

Continuous variation

A

➼ quantitative differences in the phenotypes of individuals within a population
eg. height
➼ characteristics that show continuous variation are not controlled by a single gene but polygenes (influenced by environmental factors)

34
Q

Discontinuous variation

A

➼ Qualitative differences in the phenotypes of individuals within a population
➼ no in-between values - fall into discrete and distinguishable categories
eg. sex
➼ represented by bar chart/ pie chart
➼ controlled by one gene

35
Q

Examples of continuous variation

A

eye colour, height, weight, temperature, length, width, blood pressure

36
Q

Examples of discontinuous variation

A

➼ animals: blood group, gender
➼ plants: colour, seed shape
➼ microorganisms: antibiotic resistance, pigment production

37
Q

Genetic causes of variation

A

➼ diff genes have diff effects on phenotypes
↠ diff alleles at a single gene locus have a large effect on phenotype
↠ gene for human blood groups has 3 diff alleles

➼ mutations: changes to the DNA sequence + therefore to genes can lead to changes in the proteins that are coded for
↠ mutation in gametes- passed on to organism’s offspring

➼ Meosis: gametes are produced- independent assortment and crossing over occurs -> variation

38
Q

Environmental causes of variation

A

➼ eg. scars on body, piercings, accents (none of which can be inherited)
➼ can change over an organism’s life
- Length of sunlight hours (which may be seasonal)
- Supply of nutrients (food)
- Availability of water
- Temperature range
- Oxygen levels

39
Q

Environmental and genetic causes

A

➼ tall parents - gene to grow to a tell height is inherited BUT can be affected by poor diet or diseases
➼ skin colour-> depends on melanin contained
➼ more melanin, the darker the skin colour (sunlight can affect)

40
Q

Characteristics of a normal distribution

A

➼ mean, mode and median are the same
➼ bell shape
➼ 50% is greater than than the mean, 50% is less than the mean
➼ most values lie close to the mean

41
Q

selection pressures

A

➜ Environmental factors that affect the chance of survival of an organism
➜ can have different effects on the allele frequencies

42
Q

Adaptations

A

➼ anatomical
➼ behavioural
➼ physiological

43
Q

Analogous structure

A

➼ adapted to perform the same function but have diff genetic origin

44
Q

Anatomical Adaptations

A

➜ Structural or physical features
➼ body covering eg. hairs, scales, spines, feathers, shells
➼ camouflage - outer colour allows it to blend into its environment
➼ teeth
➼ mimicry

45
Q

Physiological adaptations

A

➜ Biological processes within the organism
➼ Poison production
➼ Antibiotic production
➼ Water holding

46
Q

Behavioural adaptations

A

➜ The way an organism behaves
➼ survival behaviours - eg. an opossum plays dead + a rabbit freezes when they think they have been seen
➼ courtship- many animals exhibit elaborate courtship behaviours to attract a mate
➼ seasonal behaviours - migration, hibernation

2 MAIN CATEGORIES:
➼ innate - ability to do this is inherited through genes
➼ learned behaviour - these adaptation are learnt from experience/ from observing other animals

47
Q

Evolution

A

➜ The change in adaptive features of a population over time as a result of natural selection

48
Q

Convergent evolution

A

➼ when unrelated species begin to share similar traits (don’t share a common ancestor and are in diff parts of world)
➼ occurs when the two habitats, in which the two species have evolved and to which they have become adapted, are very similar
➜ you would have to travel back many millions of years to find the common ancestor of these species - that would not even posses any of adaptations of recent organism
eg. whales and fish -> both in the ocean
e.g marsupial moles in Australia and European mole are both blind and both burrow

49
Q

Natural selection

A

➜ will select for favourable alleles that produce adaptations
➜ will select against unfavourable alleles
➜ will cause favourable allele frequencies to increase and unfavourable allele frequencies to decrease, making the species better adapted to its environment

50
Q

processes resulting in natural selection

A

➜ Random mutation can produce new alleles of a gene
➜ Environmental factors - those with advantageous allele to survive environment produce offspring and those without die off
➜ genetic variation - population with a large gene pool or high genetic diversity has a strong ability to adapt to change

51
Q

Drug resistance in microorganisms

A

➜ variation due to mutation in bacteria
➜ chance mutation might cause some bacteria to become resistant to an antibiotic
➜ when population treated with antibiotic the resistant bacteria don’t die and so they reproduce with less competition as competition is dead
➜ bacteria only have one copy of each gene, a mutant gene will have an immediate effect on any bacterium possessing it
➜ over time, the whole population of bacteria becomes antibiotic-resistant

52
Q

How bacteria inherit antibiotic resistance

A
  • Vertical & Horizontal transmission
53
Q

vertical transmission

A

➜ reproduce asexually by binary fission very rapidly
➜ so if one bacterium contains mutant gene all of its descendants (which is a shit tonne) will have antibiotic resistance
➜ this form of transmission enables antibiotic resistance to spread within a bacterial population

54
Q

horizontal transmission

A

➜ plasmids contain antibiotic resistant genes
➜ plasmids are frequently transferred between bacteria
➜ occurs during conjugation (when a thin tube forms between two bacteria to allow the exchange of DNA)
➜ even between diff species of bacteria

55
Q

how to reduce cases of antibiotic resistance

A
  • prescribe antibiotics when absolutely necessary
  • make sure patients complete full course so no remaining bacteria left over
  • Rotate which antibiotics are used so that one type is not continuously used in the treatment of a specific disease
  • use antibiotics as a last resort
56
Q

Consequences of antibiotic resistance

A

➜ formation of bacteria called superbugs which are very hard to destroy
➜ e.g Staphylococcus aureus - developed resistance to a powerful antibiotic called methicillin as well as other antibiotics and known as MRSA

57
Q

Types of pesticides

A

Insecticides (kill insect pests)
Herbicides (kill plant pests)
Fungicides (kill fungal pests)
Molluscicides (kill slug and snail pests)
Rodenticides (kill rodent pests)

58
Q

Pesticide resistance in insects

A

➜ insecticides that are sprayed on crops act as selective agents
➜ selective agent is any environmental factor that influences the survival of a particular species and so drives natural selection in that species

59
Q

Consequences of pesticide resistance

A

➜ problem for the security of future food supplies
➜ combination of pesticides can delay the emergence and spread of resistance in pest insect populations
➜ farmers encouraged to use other forms of insect pest control - biological control/GM crops
➜

Biology (25 decks)

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