Chapter 10 Flashcards
What do the properties of a pollutant determine?
Length of time that it may cause a problem, the level of harm, and the distance it may travel.
How does state of matter affect a pollutant?
Affects its ability to be dispersed by moving water or air.
What does density affect?
Density affects its dispersal
Define persistence.
measure of the length of time that a pollutant remains in the environment before it degrades
What are the 3 types of degredation?
Biodegradation
Photodegradation
Thermaldegradation
Define toxicity.
Measure of how poisonous a substance is to living organisms
Define specificity.
Used to describe variations in toxicity to different groups or organisms.
What is a primary pollutant?
A primary pollutant is one that is released by human activities.
What is a secondary pollutant?
A secondary pollutant is one that is produced by chemical reactions between one or more primary pollutants.
What is adsorption?
The attaching of pollutants to a surface.
Define bioaccumulation.
Process by which the amount of a substance within an organism increases.
Define biomagnification.
When a substance increases in concentration as it passes along the food chain.
What do teratogens do?
Cause birth abnormalities by preventing normal gene expression. They inhibit the function of proteins and enzymes.
What does mobility allow?
High mobility allows for pollutants to travel further distances.
What 5 factors affect degredation?
Temperature Light Levels Oxygen pH Pollutant interactions
What factors affect dispersal?
Wind and water currents
Temperature inversions
What factors allow a temperature inversion to form?
Valleys
Low wind velocity
Cloudless skies
Mist or fog during the day
What are the 3 strategies to control pollution?
Critical Pathway Analysis
Critical Group Monitoring
Emission Control Strategies
What is the purpose of CPA?
To predict the movement of potential pollutants in the environment and assess the severity and location that the pollution may occur.
What is CGM?
Specific methods of assessing the risk of public exposure to pollutants.
What are emission control stratergies?
Environmental factors affect the dispersal of pollutants and some factors can be managed e.g. location and timing
What are 3 types of pollution control?
Polluter pays principle
Precautionary principle
Selection of the control method
What is the polluter pays principle?
Incentive to prevent it is the cost of preventing are less than the costs of the damage.
What is the precautionary principle?
Assumes that waste causes pollution until research proves it doesn’t which means responsibility can’t be reduced.
What are the 4 control methods?
Production prevention
Prevention of release
Post-release remediation
Alternative processes
What does ALARA stand for?
As Low As Reasonably Achievable
What does BATNEEC stand for?
Best Available Technology, Not Entailing, Excessive Cost
What two factors can effect the behaviour of pollutants?
Wind - rapid movement over large areas
EM radiation and UV light - chemical reactions can occur
What are the main sources of smoke?
Combustion of: Coal Diesel Combustible wastes Crop waste Wood fuel Grasslands Forest Areas
What are the effects of smoke pollution?
Respiratory problems
Reduced photosynthesis
Can damage buildings
Reduce temperatures - high albedo
What are smoke smogs?
The combination of smoke and fog
What are the 5 smoke pollution control measures?
Legislation - Clean Air Act Domestic sources Transport sources Industrial sources More efficient combustion technology
What pollutants are involved in photochemical smogs?
Primary and Secondary
UV light
What are the sources of primary pollutants for photochemical smogs?
Urban areas - NOx
Presence of sunlight and toxic SP - PANS
What are the effects of photochemical pollutants?
NOx - respiratory infections
PANs - irritation and breathing difficulty
Tropospheric ozone - respiratory infections and contributes to PAN production
How can photochemical smog be controlled?
Use of catalytic converters
Vapours at petrol stations can be condensed and used
Activated carbon filter where the hydrocarbons adsorb onto the carbon particles
How does acid rain form?
Naturally occurring CO2 in the atmosphere dissolves which forms a dilute carbonic acid concentration
What are the main pollutants in acid rain?
Sulfur dioxides dissolve in water to produce sulfurous acid
Sulfur dioxide may be oxidised to produce sulfur trioxide
NOx dissolve to produce nitrous and nitric acid
What are the effects of acid rain on non-living things?
Corrodes metals
Corrodes railway damage
Corrodes power lines
Damages limestone structures
What are the direct impacts of acid rains on organisms?
Exposed tissue will be damaged (fish eggs)
Lichens are sensitive to acidic conditions
Sulfur dioxide can create breathing difficulties
What are the indirect impacts of acid rains on organisms?
Solubility of metal ions is affected
Can leach metals ions from the soil
Inhibit enzyme actions
Metal ions that have been leach can have human health impacts
What are the ways of controlling acid rain?
Control of oxides of sulphur
Control of oxides of nitrogen
What are the control of oxides of sulphur?
Natural gas Crude oil desulfurisation Coal desulfurisation Flue gas desulfurisation Dry flue gas desulfurisation Wet flue gas desulfurisation
What are the control of oxides of nitrogen?
Low-temperature combustion
Catalytic convertors
Urea sprays
What are the effects of tropospheric ozone?
Toxic to plants
Reduces plant growth
Involved in the production of secondary pollutants
How can tropospheric ozone be controlled?
Reducing levels of primary pollutants
Reduction in nitrogen oxides
What are the effects of CO?
Binds to haemoglobin and prevents it from carrying blood
Can increase health problems caused by chronic heart disease
How can CO be controlled?
Use of catalytic converters
What are the features that can affect the harm of pollutants in water?
Effluent quantity
Volume of water
Residence time of the water
What factors affect degradation?
High sunlight/UV levels may cause photochemical degradation Dissolved oxygen Higher temperature Removal of water Dispersal
What are the effects of thermal pollution?
Ecological effects e.g. killing of aquatic organisms
Deoxygenation of water
What physiological changes can high water temperature cause?
Increased metabolic rates Increased rate of development Non-indigenous species introduced Pollutant toxicity is often greater Resistance to disease may be reduced
What is the way of controlling thermal pollution?
Cooling towers
What are the causes of oil pollution?
Waste lubricating oil
Accidental releases
Oil exploration
What are the effects of oil pollution?
Some parts of crude oil are toxic
Can cover aquifer life
Can cause birds to drown
Can cause birds feathers to stick
Can reduce the amount of oxygen that can dissolve into water
Marine animals who use smell may have difficulties
How can oil pollution be controlled?
Recycling of oil releases Better Shipping routes Better navigation systems Inert gas systems Tanks washing procedures Oily waste water disposal Double hull Twin engine ships Separate oil and ballast tanks Oil interceptors Bund walls
What are the 7 ways of controlling oil spills?
Booms Skimmers Absorbent materials Detergents Polymerising agents Steam washing Bioremediation
What are the direct effects of pesticide pollution on living organisms?
DDT could affect birds and low concentrations could cause thin eggshells
What are the indirect effects of pesticide pollution on living organisms?
Reduction in one species could affect interspecies relationships and food chains
What are the methods to reduce pesticide pollution?
Restrictions on use Use of non-persistent pesticides Use of more specific pesticides Use of systemic pesticides Application timing Non-pesticide techniques
What are the effects of inorganic pollution?
Cultural eutrophication Effects of nitrates on human health Effects of nitrates on babies Nitrates and cancer Control of inorganic nutrients
What are the effects of organic nutrient pollution?
Deoxygenation
Pathogens
Inorganic nutrient release
How can organic effluents be treated?
Pre-treatment Primary treatment Secondary treatment Tertiary treatment Sludge treatment
What are the effects of acid mine drainage?
Acidic solutions have similar effects to acid rain
Solutions can often contain toxic metals
How can acid mine drainage be controlled?
Can be passed through crushed limestone to neutralise the acids
What are the key properties of heavy metals?
Inhibit enzyme function
May be stored in fat droplets if liposoluble
More soluble at lower pH
What are the sources of lead pollution?
Lead-acid batteries
Lead flashing
How can lead pollution be controlled?
Water pipes Petrol additives Electrical solder Fishing weights Shotgun pellets
What are the sources of mercury?
Batteries Fluorescent lights Thermometers Chemical plants Combustion of coal
How can mercury pollution be controlled
Replacement of mercury thermometers
Removal from effluents
Ion exchange filters
Disposal at high pH to reduce solubility
What is cadmium pollution caused by?
Disposal of nickel-cadmium batteries
incineration of pigments
What are the effects of cadmium?
Brain damage and Paralysis
Lung Cancer
Kidney Failure
Skeletal Collapse
What are the effects of iron pollution?
Can cause deoxygenation when oxidised in water
Drainage through spoil heaps can leach it into water
How can iron pollution be controlled?
Collection of spoil heap drainage and passing to over mesh screens to oxidise the iron
What are the sources of solid wastes?
Mining and construction wastes
- Mine overburden/Mine spoil heaps/Demolition waste
Domestic and commercian municipal waste
-paper/packaging/containers/domestic appliances/clothing
Industrial waste
What are the properties of solid waste?
Degradability Flammability Release of radioactivity toxicity Conditions that affect degradation
What manufacturing methods increase waste?
Built-in obsolescence
Disposable products
Overpackaging
What factors affect waste disposal methods?
Population density Mass of waste produced Properties of waste Land availability Availability of recycling technology Environmental awareness Regulatory framework and legislation Household income Waste processing costs
What are the features of good landfill site management?
Separation of waste
Polymer liner to prevent the escape of leachate fluids
Perimeter fence to prevent escaping litter
Regular covering with soil
Collection and treatment of leachate
Collection of methane
Impermeable cap
Deodorising sprays
Dispersal of flammable materials
No dumping of chemicals which could react together
What are the disadvantages of landfill?
Potential resource value is lost Use large areas of land Organic matter decays anaerobically Toxic leachate may leak Habitats and farmland may be lost Transport to site can create noise and congestion
How can spoil heaps be managed?
Stability Drainage Lack of nutrients pH Contamination Topography Toxic leachates Heavy metals Flammable wastes
What are the advantages of incineration?
Volume of ash is less than original waste
Heat produced can be used for heating
No sorting is needed
Flammable materials can be burnt in purpose build stations
What are the disadvantages of incineration?
Resource value may be lost
Toxic dioxins may be produced
Fuel used to maintain combustion is expensive
Wastes need to have wet waste removed
Costs associated with treatment of atmospheric pollutants
What are the features of good domestic waste incinerators?
Recyclable wastes are removed Waste with high water content is removed Temperature is kept high Heat produced is harnessed for use Atmospheric pollution is controlled Some materials may need additional treatment Heavy metals can be removed
What is encapsulation?
Hazardous waste containing heavy metals are put in containers with a cement slurry
What is vitrification?
Powdered radioactive waste is mixed with molten glass and poured into stainless steel containers
What is the logarithmic dB scale?
An increase by 10dB represents a 10 fold increase in volume
What is the frequency range of human hearing?
20-20,000Hz
What are the 3 effects of noise pollution on buildings?
Acoustic Fatigue
Vibration Damage
Shock Impacts
What are the effects of noise on living organisms?
Hearing damage Stree-related health problems Behavioural changes Communication problems Livestock - panic Disturbance to breeding birds Reduced feeding success (hearing food) Hearing damage/behavioural changes
What methods are used by military aircraft to avoid noise pollution?
Major urban areas are avoided 13 Major avoidance areas Varied flight paths 20 low flying areas Can request temporary low-level flight request Low flying timetables Compensation for damages May avoid sensitive areas
How does civil aircraft noise affect things?
Airliners cruise at high altitudes
Located next to urban areas
Level of noise nuisance is controlled by times and flights
How are airports designed and located?
Location away from major population centres Taxi areas away from residential areas Engine test areas Acoustic insulation Land-use restrictions Noise deflection/absorption Multiple landing runways
How can aircraft engine design be used to reduce noise pollution?
High bypass-ratio engines
Chevron nozzles
Engine hush kits
Engine acoustic liners
How can aircraft body design be used to reduce noise pollution?
Blended aircraft wing
Aerodynamics
Lighter Aircraft
How can aircraft operation be controlled to reduce noise?
Take-off angle
Flightpath planning
Constant descent angle
Night flight restrictions
How can noisier aircraft be controlled?
Noise limits
Charges for noisier aircraft
Restricted flight times
Quota count system
What are the sources of railway noise?
Wheel vibration Engine noise Pantograph turbulence Braking squeal Wheel noise
How can the sources of railway noise be reduced?
Wheel vibration - Track polishing
Engine noise - Sound-absorbing suspension
Pantograph turbulence - Aerodynamic fairing
Braking squeal - Use of composite breaks
Wheel noise - Good carriage suspension
What are the sources of road noise?
Wheel noise
Vehicle air turbulence
Engine noise
General road vehicle noise
How can the sources of road noise be reduced?
Wheel noise - Sound-absorbing road materials
Vehicle air turbulence - Improved aerodynamics
Engine noise - Acoustic insulation
General road vehicle noise - Rerouting traffic/traffic management/Fences/double glazing
What are the sources of industrial noise?
Air compressors and pumps Stamping machines Metal conveyors Mine blasting Pile-driving on land Pile driving at sea Marine seismic surveys
How can the sources of industrial noise be reduced?
Air compressors and pumps - Silencers
Stamping machines - alternative processes
Metal conveyors - use of nylon bearings/wheels/rollers
Mine blasting - Baffle mounds/regular timing
Pile-driving on land - Drilling instead of driving
Pile driving at sea - air bubble curtains
Marine seismic surveys Acoustic surveys to detect cetaceans
How can domestic noise be controlled?
Domestic appliances with acoustic absorbers Wearing ear defenders Volume limiters Selection of quieter domestic appliances Control of pet dogs
What are the 4 ways of measuring traffic noise level?
LA10
LA90
Traffic noise index
L10(18h)
What are the 3 ways of measuring aircraft noise level?
Effective Perceived Noise Levels
Noise and Number Index
Leq 57dB
How can ionising radiation be used in industry?
Measuring thickness of rolled materials
Testing aircraft jet turbines
Strengthening polymersOil and gas exploration to test rock porosity
How can ionising radiation be used in healthcare?
Sterilising heat-sensitive equipment
Cancer treatment
X-rays and CT scans
How can ionising radiation be used in agriculture?
Pest control
Sterile male
Production of mutations
How can ionising radiation be used in scientific research?
Radio-labelled tracers
How can ionising radiation be used in nuclear fission and fusion?
Nuclear weapons
Nuclear electricity
Ship propulsion
What are the 5 areas ionising radiation can be used?
Industry Healthcare Agriculture Scientific research Nuclear fission and fusion
What are the 6 risks and benefits of the use of ionising radiation?
Symptoms make take a long time to show
Some effects can be difficult to identify
Accurate data on human impacts isn’t always available
People who benefit and those who risk may not be in the same place
Risks associated may be offset by other risks
What are the 9 ways you can be exposed to radiation?
Cosmic Gamma rays from the lithosphere Internal radiation from the body Radiation from ground Medical exposure Occupational exposure Atomic weapons fallout Consumer products Industrial radiation discharges
What factors affect the impact of ionising radiation?
Properties of different types of ionising radiation
Half-life and health risks
Effects of ionising radiation on living tissue
Exposure and contamination
Activation products
What are the 6 effects of ionising radiation on living tissue?
Damage to the nucleus of the cell Damage to other parts of the cell Somatic effects Gonadic effects Chronic effects Acute effects
What are the 2 principles of controls?
ALARA - as low as reasonably achievable
BATNEEC - best available technology not entailing excessive costs
What are the 6 strategies to reduce exposure?
Closed sources Materials to absorb the radiation Protective clothing Distance from the source (does received= 1/distance^2) Reducing the period of exposure Decontamination
What units are used to measure ionising radiation?
Becquerel - measure the activity of the source
Gray - measure of absorbed dose
Sievert - measure of effective dose
How can radiation workers be monitored?
Personal dosemeters
Photographic film badges
Air monitors
Contamination monitors
