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Chapter 10 Flashcards

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1
Q

What do the properties of a pollutant determine?

A

Length of time that it may cause a problem, the level of harm, and the distance it may travel.

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2
Q

How does state of matter affect a pollutant?

A

Affects its ability to be dispersed by moving water or air.

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3
Q

What does density affect?

A

Density affects its dispersal

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4
Q

Define persistence.

A

measure of the length of time that a pollutant remains in the environment before it degrades

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5
Q

What are the 3 types of degredation?

A

Biodegradation
Photodegradation
Thermaldegradation

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6
Q

Define toxicity.

A

Measure of how poisonous a substance is to living organisms

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7
Q

Define specificity.

A

Used to describe variations in toxicity to different groups or organisms.

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8
Q

What is a primary pollutant?

A

A primary pollutant is one that is released by human activities.

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9
Q

What is a secondary pollutant?

A

A secondary pollutant is one that is produced by chemical reactions between one or more primary pollutants.

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10
Q

What is adsorption?

A

The attaching of pollutants to a surface.

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11
Q

Define bioaccumulation.

A

Process by which the amount of a substance within an organism increases.

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12
Q

Define biomagnification.

A

When a substance increases in concentration as it passes along the food chain.

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13
Q

What do teratogens do?

A

Cause birth abnormalities by preventing normal gene expression. They inhibit the function of proteins and enzymes.

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14
Q

What does mobility allow?

A

High mobility allows for pollutants to travel further distances.

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15
Q

What 5 factors affect degredation?

A 
Temperature
Light Levels
Oxygen
pH
Pollutant interactions
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16
Q

What factors affect dispersal?

A

Wind and water currents

Temperature inversions

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17
Q

What factors allow a temperature inversion to form?

A

Valleys
Low wind velocity
Cloudless skies
Mist or fog during the day

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18
Q

What are the 3 strategies to control pollution?

A

Critical Pathway Analysis
Critical Group Monitoring
Emission Control Strategies

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19
Q

What is the purpose of CPA?

A

To predict the movement of potential pollutants in the environment and assess the severity and location that the pollution may occur.

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20
Q

What is CGM?

A

Specific methods of assessing the risk of public exposure to pollutants.

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21
Q

What are emission control stratergies?

A

Environmental factors affect the dispersal of pollutants and some factors can be managed e.g. location and timing

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22
Q

What are 3 types of pollution control?

A

Polluter pays principle
Precautionary principle
Selection of the control method

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23
Q

What is the polluter pays principle?

A

Incentive to prevent it is the cost of preventing are less than the costs of the damage.

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24
Q

What is the precautionary principle?

A

Assumes that waste causes pollution until research proves it doesn’t which means responsibility can’t be reduced.

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25
Q

What are the 4 control methods?

A

Production prevention
Prevention of release
Post-release remediation
Alternative processes

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26
Q

What does ALARA stand for?

A

As Low As Reasonably Achievable

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27
Q

What does BATNEEC stand for?

A

Best Available Technology, Not Entailing, Excessive Cost

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28
Q

What two factors can effect the behaviour of pollutants?

A

Wind - rapid movement over large areas

EM radiation and UV light - chemical reactions can occur

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29
Q

What are the main sources of smoke?

A 
Combustion of:
Coal
Diesel
Combustible wastes
Crop waste
Wood fuel
Grasslands
Forest Areas
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30
Q

What are the effects of smoke pollution?

A

Respiratory problems
Reduced photosynthesis
Can damage buildings
Reduce temperatures - high albedo

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31
Q

What are smoke smogs?

A

The combination of smoke and fog

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32
Q

What are the 5 smoke pollution control measures?

A 
Legislation - Clean Air Act
Domestic sources
Transport sources
Industrial sources
More efficient combustion technology
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33
Q

What pollutants are involved in photochemical smogs?

A

Primary and Secondary

UV light

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34
Q

What are the sources of primary pollutants for photochemical smogs?

A

Urban areas - NOx

Presence of sunlight and toxic SP - PANS

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35
Q

What are the effects of photochemical pollutants?

A

NOx - respiratory infections
PANs - irritation and breathing difficulty
Tropospheric ozone - respiratory infections and contributes to PAN production

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36
Q

How can photochemical smog be controlled?

A

Use of catalytic converters
Vapours at petrol stations can be condensed and used
Activated carbon filter where the hydrocarbons adsorb onto the carbon particles

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37
Q

How does acid rain form?

A

Naturally occurring CO2 in the atmosphere dissolves which forms a dilute carbonic acid concentration

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38
Q

What are the main pollutants in acid rain?

A

Sulfur dioxides dissolve in water to produce sulfurous acid
Sulfur dioxide may be oxidised to produce sulfur trioxide
NOx dissolve to produce nitrous and nitric acid

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39
Q

What are the effects of acid rain on non-living things?

A

Corrodes metals
Corrodes railway damage
Corrodes power lines
Damages limestone structures

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40
Q

What are the direct impacts of acid rains on organisms?

A

Exposed tissue will be damaged (fish eggs)
Lichens are sensitive to acidic conditions
Sulfur dioxide can create breathing difficulties

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41
Q

What are the indirect impacts of acid rains on organisms?

A

Solubility of metal ions is affected
Can leach metals ions from the soil
Inhibit enzyme actions
Metal ions that have been leach can have human health impacts

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42
Q

What are the ways of controlling acid rain?

A

Control of oxides of sulphur

Control of oxides of nitrogen

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43
Q

What are the control of oxides of sulphur?

A 
Natural gas
Crude oil desulfurisation
Coal desulfurisation
Flue gas desulfurisation 
Dry flue gas desulfurisation 
Wet flue gas desulfurisation
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44
Q

What are the control of oxides of nitrogen?

A

Low-temperature combustion
Catalytic convertors
Urea sprays

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45
Q

What are the effects of tropospheric ozone?

A

Toxic to plants
Reduces plant growth
Involved in the production of secondary pollutants

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46
Q

How can tropospheric ozone be controlled?

A

Reducing levels of primary pollutants

Reduction in nitrogen oxides

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47
Q

What are the effects of CO?

A

Binds to haemoglobin and prevents it from carrying blood

Can increase health problems caused by chronic heart disease

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48
Q

How can CO be controlled?

A

Use of catalytic converters

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49
Q

What are the features that can affect the harm of pollutants in water?

A

Effluent quantity
Volume of water
Residence time of the water

50
Q

What factors affect degradation?

A 
High sunlight/UV levels may cause photochemical degradation
Dissolved oxygen
Higher temperature
Removal of water
Dispersal
51
Q

What are the effects of thermal pollution?

A

Ecological effects e.g. killing of aquatic organisms

Deoxygenation of water

52
Q

What physiological changes can high water temperature cause?

A 
Increased metabolic rates
Increased rate of development
Non-indigenous species introduced
Pollutant toxicity is often greater
Resistance to disease may be reduced
53
Q

What is the way of controlling thermal pollution?

A

Cooling towers

54
Q

What are the causes of oil pollution?

A

Waste lubricating oil
Accidental releases
Oil exploration

55
Q

What are the effects of oil pollution?

A

Some parts of crude oil are toxic
Can cover aquifer life
Can cause birds to drown
Can cause birds feathers to stick
Can reduce the amount of oxygen that can dissolve into water
Marine animals who use smell may have difficulties

56
Q

How can oil pollution be controlled?

A 
Recycling of oil releases
Better Shipping routes
Better navigation systems
Inert gas systems 
Tanks washing procedures
Oily waste water disposal
Double hull 
Twin engine ships
Separate oil and ballast tanks
Oil interceptors
Bund walls
57
Q

What are the 7 ways of controlling oil spills?

A 
Booms
Skimmers
Absorbent materials
Detergents
Polymerising agents
Steam washing
Bioremediation
58
Q

What are the direct effects of pesticide pollution on living organisms?

A

DDT could affect birds and low concentrations could cause thin eggshells

59
Q

What are the indirect effects of pesticide pollution on living organisms?

A

Reduction in one species could affect interspecies relationships and food chains

60
Q

What are the methods to reduce pesticide pollution?

A 
Restrictions on use
Use of non-persistent pesticides
Use of more specific pesticides
Use of systemic pesticides
Application timing
Non-pesticide techniques
61
Q

What are the effects of inorganic pollution?

A 
Cultural eutrophication
Effects of nitrates on human health
Effects of nitrates on babies
Nitrates and cancer
Control of inorganic nutrients
62
Q

What are the effects of organic nutrient pollution?

A

Deoxygenation
Pathogens
Inorganic nutrient release

63
Q

How can organic effluents be treated?

A 
Pre-treatment
Primary treatment
Secondary treatment
Tertiary treatment
Sludge treatment
64
Q

What are the effects of acid mine drainage?

A

Acidic solutions have similar effects to acid rain

Solutions can often contain toxic metals

65
Q

How can acid mine drainage be controlled?

A

Can be passed through crushed limestone to neutralise the acids

66
Q

What are the key properties of heavy metals?

A

Inhibit enzyme function
May be stored in fat droplets if liposoluble
More soluble at lower pH

67
Q

What are the sources of lead pollution?

A

Lead-acid batteries

Lead flashing

68
Q

How can lead pollution be controlled?

A 
Water pipes
Petrol additives
Electrical solder
Fishing weights
Shotgun pellets
69
Q

What are the sources of mercury?

A 
Batteries
Fluorescent lights
Thermometers
Chemical plants
Combustion of coal
70
Q

How can mercury pollution be controlled

A

Replacement of mercury thermometers
Removal from effluents
Ion exchange filters
Disposal at high pH to reduce solubility

71
Q

What is cadmium pollution caused by?

A

Disposal of nickel-cadmium batteries

incineration of pigments

72
Q

What are the effects of cadmium?

A

Brain damage and Paralysis
Lung Cancer
Kidney Failure
Skeletal Collapse

73
Q

What are the effects of iron pollution?

A

Can cause deoxygenation when oxidised in water

Drainage through spoil heaps can leach it into water

74
Q

How can iron pollution be controlled?

A

Collection of spoil heap drainage and passing to over mesh screens to oxidise the iron

75
Q

What are the sources of solid wastes?

A

Mining and construction wastes
- Mine overburden/Mine spoil heaps/Demolition waste
Domestic and commercian municipal waste
-paper/packaging/containers/domestic appliances/clothing
Industrial waste

76
Q

What are the properties of solid waste?

A 
Degradability
Flammability
Release of radioactivity
toxicity
Conditions that affect degradation
77
Q

What manufacturing methods increase waste?

A

Built-in obsolescence
Disposable products
Overpackaging

78
Q

What factors affect waste disposal methods?

A 
Population density
Mass of waste produced
Properties of waste
Land availability
Availability of recycling technology
Environmental awareness
Regulatory framework and legislation
Household income
Waste processing costs
79
Q

What are the features of good landfill site management?

A

Separation of waste
Polymer liner to prevent the escape of leachate fluids
Perimeter fence to prevent escaping litter
Regular covering with soil
Collection and treatment of leachate
Collection of methane
Impermeable cap
Deodorising sprays
Dispersal of flammable materials
No dumping of chemicals which could react together

80
Q

What are the disadvantages of landfill?

A 
Potential resource value is lost
Use large areas of land
Organic matter decays anaerobically
Toxic leachate may leak
Habitats and farmland may be lost
Transport to site can create noise and congestion
81
Q

How can spoil heaps be managed?

A 
Stability
Drainage
Lack of nutrients
pH
Contamination
Topography
Toxic leachates
Heavy metals
Flammable wastes
82
Q

What are the advantages of incineration?

A

Volume of ash is less than original waste
Heat produced can be used for heating
No sorting is needed
Flammable materials can be burnt in purpose build stations

83
Q

What are the disadvantages of incineration?

A

Resource value may be lost
Toxic dioxins may be produced
Fuel used to maintain combustion is expensive
Wastes need to have wet waste removed
Costs associated with treatment of atmospheric pollutants

84
Q

What are the features of good domestic waste incinerators?

A 
Recyclable wastes are removed
Waste with high water content is removed
Temperature is kept high
Heat produced is harnessed for use
Atmospheric pollution is controlled
Some materials may need additional treatment
Heavy metals can be removed
85
Q

What is encapsulation?

A

Hazardous waste containing heavy metals are put in containers with a cement slurry

86
Q

What is vitrification?

A

Powdered radioactive waste is mixed with molten glass and poured into stainless steel containers

87
Q

What is the logarithmic dB scale?

A

An increase by 10dB represents a 10 fold increase in volume

88
Q

What is the frequency range of human hearing?

A

20-20,000Hz

89
Q

What are the 3 effects of noise pollution on buildings?

A

Acoustic Fatigue
Vibration Damage
Shock Impacts

90
Q

What are the effects of noise on living organisms?

A 
Hearing damage
Stree-related health problems
Behavioural changes
Communication problems
Livestock - panic
Disturbance to breeding birds
Reduced feeding success (hearing food)
Hearing damage/behavioural changes
91
Q

What methods are used by military aircraft to avoid noise pollution?

A 
Major urban areas are avoided
13 Major avoidance areas
Varied flight paths
20 low flying areas
Can request temporary low-level flight request
Low flying timetables
Compensation for damages
May avoid sensitive areas
92
Q

How does civil aircraft noise affect things?

A

Airliners cruise at high altitudes
Located next to urban areas
Level of noise nuisance is controlled by times and flights

93
Q

How are airports designed and located?

A 
Location away from major population centres
Taxi areas away from residential areas
Engine test areas
Acoustic insulation
Land-use restrictions
Noise deflection/absorption
Multiple landing runways
94
Q

How can aircraft engine design be used to reduce noise pollution?

A

High bypass-ratio engines
Chevron nozzles
Engine hush kits
Engine acoustic liners

95
Q

How can aircraft body design be used to reduce noise pollution?

A

Blended aircraft wing
Aerodynamics
Lighter Aircraft

96
Q

How can aircraft operation be controlled to reduce noise?

A

Take-off angle
Flightpath planning
Constant descent angle
Night flight restrictions

97
Q

How can noisier aircraft be controlled?

A

Noise limits
Charges for noisier aircraft
Restricted flight times
Quota count system

98
Q

What are the sources of railway noise?

A 
Wheel vibration
Engine noise
Pantograph turbulence
Braking squeal
Wheel noise
99
Q

How can the sources of railway noise be reduced?

A

Wheel vibration - Track polishing
Engine noise - Sound-absorbing suspension
Pantograph turbulence - Aerodynamic fairing
Braking squeal - Use of composite breaks
Wheel noise - Good carriage suspension

100
Q

What are the sources of road noise?

A

Wheel noise
Vehicle air turbulence
Engine noise
General road vehicle noise

101
Q

How can the sources of road noise be reduced?

A

Wheel noise - Sound-absorbing road materials
Vehicle air turbulence - Improved aerodynamics
Engine noise - Acoustic insulation
General road vehicle noise - Rerouting traffic/traffic management/Fences/double glazing

102
Q

What are the sources of industrial noise?

A 
Air compressors and pumps
Stamping machines
Metal conveyors
Mine blasting
Pile-driving on land
Pile driving at sea
Marine seismic surveys
103
Q

How can the sources of industrial noise be reduced?

A

Air compressors and pumps - Silencers
Stamping machines - alternative processes
Metal conveyors - use of nylon bearings/wheels/rollers
Mine blasting - Baffle mounds/regular timing
Pile-driving on land - Drilling instead of driving
Pile driving at sea - air bubble curtains
Marine seismic surveys Acoustic surveys to detect cetaceans

104
Q

How can domestic noise be controlled?

A 
Domestic appliances with acoustic absorbers
Wearing ear defenders
Volume limiters
Selection of quieter domestic appliances
Control of pet dogs
105
Q

What are the 4 ways of measuring traffic noise level?

A

LA10
LA90
Traffic noise index
L10(18h)

106
Q

What are the 3 ways of measuring aircraft noise level?

A

Effective Perceived Noise Levels
Noise and Number Index
Leq 57dB

107
Q

How can ionising radiation be used in industry?

A

Measuring thickness of rolled materials
Testing aircraft jet turbines
Strengthening polymersOil and gas exploration to test rock porosity

108
Q

How can ionising radiation be used in healthcare?

A

Sterilising heat-sensitive equipment
Cancer treatment
X-rays and CT scans

109
Q

How can ionising radiation be used in agriculture?

A

Pest control
Sterile male
Production of mutations

110
Q

How can ionising radiation be used in scientific research?

A

Radio-labelled tracers

111
Q

How can ionising radiation be used in nuclear fission and fusion?

A

Nuclear weapons
Nuclear electricity
Ship propulsion

112
Q

What are the 5 areas ionising radiation can be used?

A 
Industry
Healthcare
Agriculture
Scientific research
Nuclear fission and fusion
113
Q

What are the 6 risks and benefits of the use of ionising radiation?

A

Symptoms make take a long time to show
Some effects can be difficult to identify
Accurate data on human impacts isn’t always available
People who benefit and those who risk may not be in the same place
Risks associated may be offset by other risks

114
Q

What are the 9 ways you can be exposed to radiation?

A 
Cosmic
Gamma rays from the lithosphere
Internal radiation from the body
Radiation from ground
Medical exposure
Occupational exposure
Atomic weapons fallout
Consumer products
Industrial radiation discharges
115
Q

What factors affect the impact of ionising radiation?

A

Properties of different types of ionising radiation
Half-life and health risks
Effects of ionising radiation on living tissue
Exposure and contamination
Activation products

116
Q

What are the 6 effects of ionising radiation on living tissue?

A 
Damage to the nucleus of the cell
Damage to other parts of the cell
Somatic effects
Gonadic effects
Chronic effects
Acute effects
117
Q

What are the 2 principles of controls?

A

ALARA - as low as reasonably achievable

BATNEEC - best available technology not entailing excessive costs

118
Q

What are the 6 strategies to reduce exposure?

A 
Closed sources
Materials to absorb the radiation
Protective clothing
Distance from the source (does received= 1/distance^2)
Reducing the period of exposure
Decontamination
119
Q

What units are used to measure ionising radiation?

A

Becquerel - measure the activity of the source
Gray - measure of absorbed dose
Sievert - measure of effective dose

120
Q

How can radiation workers be monitored?

A

Personal dosemeters
Photographic film badges
Air monitors
Contamination monitors

Environmental science (14 decks)

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