chapter 10-12 Flashcards
Kinase enzymes:
Transfer phosphates either to an intermediate form ATP, or from ATP to an intermediate. We are either making an ATP or taking ATP.
Isomerase enzymes
Rearranges the connectivity of molecules. Nothing is added or taken away. AN isomer is a molecule with the same number and type of atoms with different connectivity.
Dehydrogenase enzymes
: Are redox enzymes (redox = oxidation / reduction) which facilitate the
movement of electrons and generate (usually) NADH or FADH2.
Myoglobin:
Is a protein which stores oxygen in muscle cells. Myoglobin provides enough oxygen to run your electron transport chains for 5-6 seconds, before more O2 is needed.
Glycogen:
Storage of glucose found in muscle cells and hepatic (Liver cells). Glycogen is broken up into glucose monomers by glucagon from the pancreas.
Nervous system:
Is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system, Which also has a subdivision called the enteric nervous system. The somatic (body: soma) nervous system is voluntary and responsible for moving skeletal muscle.
The autonomic nervous system
controls breathing, heart rate, digestion, release of hormones and controls glands.
The enteric nervous system
is a subdivision which controls the digestive organs.
Unipolar neurons:
Have one connection to the cell body. Unipolar neurons are afferent neurons (sensory).
Bipolar neurons
Have two connections to the cell body. Bipolar neurons are usually interneurons.
Multipolar neurons
Have multiple connections to the cell body with dendrites. Pyramidal cells are a type of multipolar neurons typically affecting the motor neurons. Motor neurons innervate muscles.
- Cell Body
The largest portion of the neuron containing the nucleus of the cell.
- Dendrites:
Synaptic connections which extend the cell body in multipolar neurons.
- Myelin Sheath
Composed of a lipid, Myelin speeds up action potential to ~100m/s without myelin the speed is 2-3 m/s.
- Axon:
carries biochemical electrical signals from one neuron to another. Action potentials which pass signals in neurons are generated here. The portion of the axon nearest the cell body is called the trigger zone as it contains the highest number of voltage gated Na+ channels.
- Nodes of Ranvier
are gaps between myelin sheaths where action potentials hop firm node to node in what is called saltatory conduction.
- Synaptic end bulbs:
Are going to release acetylcholine when an action potential reaches the end of axon. The synaptic end bulbs can attach to another neuron or be a terminal neuron at the neuromuscular junction.
- Action potential:
Occur due to an ionic gradient which is changed with the opening of cation channels, and pumps.
Frontal Lobe:
Controls your sense of self, personal feelings, inner thoughts, and the motor cortex. The frontal lobe also controls or manages short term memory.
Templar Lobe
Controls long term memory, and controls hearing. The vestibular (8) nerve that controls hearing is processed in the temporal. Broca’s area is associated with language and speaking sounds/ words heard are processed in the association center of the parietal lobe where language is linked to meaning. The amygdala is your threat assessment. Located in the inner temporal lobe (medial) when humans are “in love” the amygdala is deactivated temporally.
Parietal lobe
Associates auditory and visual stimulus and allows you to link what is heard or seen to previous memories.
Occipital lobe
Processes the visual input taken in with cranial nerve (2) the optic nerve. Images seen must be flipped upside down, reversed, and integrated. The right and left eyes pick up two different images which are integrated together.
Cerebellum:
Contains the Arbor vitae which controls heart rate, breathing and other autonomic functions. Arbor vitae is “Tree of life” in Latin.
Pituitary gland
Controls multiple organs/regions of the body.
- Adrenal cortex (ACTH)
– When a threat is assessed by the amygdala pituitary sends out ATCH to simulate the adrenal glands (above the kidneys) to produce epinephrine, and norepinephrine for fight or flight sympathetic.
- MSH (Melanocyte stimulating hormone)
When the sunlight hits your skin with ultraviolet light (UV), melanocytes are stimulated by the pituitary to produce melanin.
- GH (growth hormone)
When children are growing, regions of their genome associated with height instruct the pituitary to produce growth hormone. This stimulates muscle and bones to grow.
- TSH(Thyroid)/ parathyroid
The thyroid makes calcitonin when blood calcium is high, and the parathyroid produces parathyroid hormone when blood calcium is low.
o Calcitonin: stimulates osteoblasts and deactivates osteoclasts
o Thyroid stimulating hormone (PTH) – stimulates osteoclasts and deactivate osteoblasts.
- Gonadotropins
Stimulates the testes and ovaries to produce gametes. Spermatogenesis is the production of sperm and oogenesis produces mature eggs via meiosis. The Y chromosome contains the SRY gene which when expressed from the testes. If the SRY gene isn’t expressed the embryo defaults to female and ovaries develop. The same cluster of cells form either testes or ovaries which is why they have the same receptors.
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Controls the kidneys, are activated in dehydration scenarios. If water is not available, but you still need to make urine, ADH conserves more water, and makes more concentrated urine. The production of urine is necessary to expel toxin nitrogen waste products form the deamination of amino acids and catabolism of nucleotides.
- Prolactin / oxytocin
Prolactin produces breast milk by stimulating the mammary glands. Oxytocin will cause uteral contractions during childbirth. This is a positive feedback mechanism, as when prolactin is produced, you produce more oxytocin, which caused more prolactin to be produced, which causes more oxytocin…… until the baby is born and plenty of milk is then available.
