chapter 10-12

Question 1

Kinase enzymes:

Answer 1

Transfer phosphates either to an intermediate form ATP, or from ATP to an intermediate. We are either making an ATP or taking ATP.

Question 2

Isomerase enzymes

Answer 2

Rearranges the connectivity of molecules. Nothing is added or taken away. AN isomer is a molecule with the same number and type of atoms with different connectivity.

Question 3

Dehydrogenase enzymes

Answer 3

: Are redox enzymes (redox = oxidation / reduction) which facilitate the
movement of electrons and generate (usually) NADH or FADH2.

Question 4

Myoglobin:

Answer 4

Is a protein which stores oxygen in muscle cells. Myoglobin provides enough oxygen to run your electron transport chains for 5-6 seconds, before more O2 is needed.

Question 5

Glycogen:

Answer 5

Storage of glucose found in muscle cells and hepatic (Liver cells). Glycogen is broken up into glucose monomers by glucagon from the pancreas.

Question 6

Nervous system:

Answer 6

Is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system, Which also has a subdivision called the enteric nervous system. The somatic (body: soma) nervous system is voluntary and responsible for moving skeletal muscle.

Question 7

The autonomic nervous system

Answer 7

controls breathing, heart rate, digestion, release of hormones and controls glands.

Question 8

The enteric nervous system

Answer 8

is a subdivision which controls the digestive organs.

Question 9

Unipolar neurons:

Answer 9

Have one connection to the cell body. Unipolar neurons are afferent neurons (sensory).

Question 10

Bipolar neurons

Answer 10

Have two connections to the cell body. Bipolar neurons are usually interneurons.

Question 11

Multipolar neurons

Answer 11

Have multiple connections to the cell body with dendrites. Pyramidal cells are a type of multipolar neurons typically affecting the motor neurons. Motor neurons innervate muscles.

Question 12

• Cell Body

Answer 12

The largest portion of the neuron containing the nucleus of the cell.

Question 13

• Dendrites:

Answer 13

Synaptic connections which extend the cell body in multipolar neurons.

Question 14

• Myelin Sheath

Answer 14

Composed of a lipid, Myelin speeds up action potential to ~100m/s without myelin the speed is 2-3 m/s.

Question 15

• Axon:

Answer 15

carries biochemical electrical signals from one neuron to another. Action potentials which pass signals in neurons are generated here. The portion of the axon nearest the cell body is called the trigger zone as it contains the highest number of voltage gated Na+ channels.

Question 16

• Nodes of Ranvier

Answer 16

are gaps between myelin sheaths where action potentials hop firm node to node in what is called saltatory conduction.

Question 17

• Synaptic end bulbs:

Answer 17

Are going to release acetylcholine when an action potential reaches the end of axon. The synaptic end bulbs can attach to another neuron or be a terminal neuron at the neuromuscular junction.

Question 18

• Action potential:

Answer 18

Occur due to an ionic gradient which is changed with the opening of cation channels, and pumps.

Question 19

Frontal Lobe:

Answer 19

Controls your sense of self, personal feelings, inner thoughts, and the motor cortex. The frontal lobe also controls or manages short term memory.

Question 20

Templar Lobe

Answer 20

Controls long term memory, and controls hearing. The vestibular (8) nerve that controls hearing is processed in the temporal. Broca’s area is associated with language and speaking sounds/ words heard are processed in the association center of the parietal lobe where language is linked to meaning. The amygdala is your threat assessment. Located in the inner temporal lobe (medial) when humans are “in love” the amygdala is deactivated temporally.

Question 21

Parietal lobe

Answer 21

Associates auditory and visual stimulus and allows you to link what is heard or seen to previous memories.

Question 22

Occipital lobe

Answer 22

Processes the visual input taken in with cranial nerve (2) the optic nerve. Images seen must be flipped upside down, reversed, and integrated. The right and left eyes pick up two different images which are integrated together.

Question 23

Cerebellum:

Answer 23

Contains the Arbor vitae which controls heart rate, breathing and other autonomic functions. Arbor vitae is “Tree of life” in Latin.

Question 24

Pituitary gland

Answer 24

Controls multiple organs/regions of the body.

Question 25

• Adrenal cortex (ACTH)

Answer 25

– When a threat is assessed by the amygdala pituitary sends out ATCH to simulate the adrenal glands (above the kidneys) to produce epinephrine, and norepinephrine for fight or flight sympathetic.

Question 26

• MSH (Melanocyte stimulating hormone)

Answer 26

When the sunlight hits your skin with ultraviolet light (UV), melanocytes are stimulated by the pituitary to produce melanin.

Question 27

• GH (growth hormone)

Answer 27

When children are growing, regions of their genome associated with height instruct the pituitary to produce growth hormone. This stimulates muscle and bones to grow.

Question 28

• TSH(Thyroid)/ parathyroid

Answer 28

The thyroid makes calcitonin when blood calcium is high, and the parathyroid produces parathyroid hormone when blood calcium is low.
o Calcitonin: stimulates osteoblasts and deactivates osteoclasts
o Thyroid stimulating hormone (PTH) – stimulates osteoclasts and deactivate osteoblasts.

Question 29

• Gonadotropins

Answer 29

Stimulates the testes and ovaries to produce gametes. Spermatogenesis is the production of sperm and oogenesis produces mature eggs via meiosis. The Y chromosome contains the SRY gene which when expressed from the testes. If the SRY gene isn’t expressed the embryo defaults to female and ovaries develop. The same cluster of cells form either testes or ovaries which is why they have the same receptors.

Question 30

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Answer 30

Controls the kidneys, are activated in dehydration scenarios. If water is not available, but you still need to make urine, ADH conserves more water, and makes more concentrated urine. The production of urine is necessary to expel toxin nitrogen waste products form the deamination of amino acids and catabolism of nucleotides.

Question 31

• Prolactin / oxytocin

Answer 31

Prolactin produces breast milk by stimulating the mammary glands. Oxytocin will cause uteral contractions during childbirth. This is a positive feedback mechanism, as when prolactin is produced, you produce more oxytocin, which caused more prolactin to be produced, which causes more oxytocin…… until the baby is born and plenty of milk is then available.