Chapter 1: What are the Origins of Brain and Behavior? COPY Flashcards
1
Q
Brain abnormalities can be related to:
A) 500 disorders. B) 1,000 disorders. C) 1,500 disorders. D) over 2,000 disorders
A
D) over 2,000 disorders. Pg 3
2
Q
All the nerve processes radiating out beyond the brain and spinal cord as well as all the neurons outside the brain and spinal cord constitute the: A) nervous system. B) central nervous system. C) peripheral nervous system. D) external nervous system.
A
C: Peripheral Nervous System.
3
Q
The postulation that we make subliminal movements of our larynx and muscles when we imagine was expounded by: A) D. O. Hebb. B) Edmond Jacobson. C) Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt. D) Fred Linge.
A
B: Edmond Jacobson
4
Q
“Behavior consists of patterns in time” is a definition of behavior expounded by: A) D. O. Hebb. B) Edmond Jacobson. C) Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt. D) Fred Linge.
A
C: Irenaus Eibl-Eibsefeldt
5
Q
Patterns in time can be made up of: A) movements. B) thinking. C) both movements and thinking. D) neither movements nor thinking.
A
C: Both movements and thinking.
6
Q
The notion that the movements we make and the movements we perceive in others are central to communication with one another is called the theory of: A) motor cognition. B) abstract language. C) embodied language. D) disembodied language.
A
C: Embodied Language. It is also called Embodied Behavior but go with embodied language.
7
Q
Crossbill birds have a beak that is designed to eat pinecones. If we trim the beak, the behavior disappears. This example illustrates: A) fixed behavior. B) flexible behavior. C) learned behavior. D) adaptive behavior.
A
A: Fixed Behaviour: Innate Behaviors that an animal is born with and does not require much learning to modify.
Learning new types of behaviour is an example of culture.
8
Q
What’s the word: ——- is a wound to the brain that results from a blow to the head
A
Traumatic Brain Injury
9
Q
What’s the word: The Brain and the spinal cord together make up the—–. All of the nerve fibres radiating out beyond the brain and spinal cord as well as all of the neurons outside the brain and spinal cord form the —–.
A
Central nervous system and Peripheral Nervous system
10
Q
What’s the word: One major set of brain structuctures, the —- or —– has nearly symmetrical left and right —– enfolding the —– which connects to the spinal cord.
A
Cerebrum/forebrain, hemispheres, brainstem
11
Q
What’s the word: A simple definition of behaviour is any kind of movement in a living organism. All behaviours have both a cause and a function but they vary in complexity and in the degree to which they are—– or automatic and the degree to which they depend on —–.
A
Inherited/fixed. Learning
12
Q
What is Embodied behaviour/embodied language?
A
The notion that the movements we make and the movements we perceive in others are central to communication with one another.
13
Q
What is the Spinal Cord?
A
Part of the Central Nervous system encased within the vertrebrae (Spinal column); provides most of the connections between the brain and the rest of the body.
14
Q
What is the peripheral nervous system?
A
All of the neurons outside the brain and spinal cord; provides sensory and motor connections to and from the central nervous system.
All nerve processes radiating out beyond the brain and spinal cord and all of the neurons outside the CNS connect to sensory receptors, muscles and internal body organs to form the PNS.
15
Q
What is the central nervous system?
A
The brain and spinal cord make it up. It is encased in bone. It is called central because it is phyiscally the nervous system’s core and is the core structure mediating behaviour.
16
Q
What are neurons?
A
Specialized nerve cells engaged in information processing. They control behavour most directly. They communicate with one another with sensory receptors in the skin, with muscles and with internal body organs.
17
Q
What is the Cerebrum/Forebrain?
A
Major structure of the forebrain that consists of two mirror image hemispheres (left and right) and is responsible for most conscious behaviour.
It is responsible for most of our conscious behaviours. It enfolds the brainstem which is responsible for most of our unconscious behaviours.
18
Q
What is the brainstem?
A
Central structure of the brain; responsible for most unconscous behaviour.
19
Q
What is the Cerebellum
A
Major brainstem structure specialized for learning and coordinating movements; assists the cerebrum in generating many behaviours.
20
Q
What is Locked in syndrome?
A
Condition in which a patient is aware and aawake but cannot move or communciate verbally because of complete paralysis of nearly all voluntary muscles except the eyes.
21
Q
Which of the following statements is most accurate? A) Nonhuman animals have mostly inherited behavior and are little influenced by learning. B) Humans share many inherited behaviors but are mostly influenced by learning. C) Unlike nonhuman animals, humans share very few inherited behaviors and are mostly influenced by learning. D) Unlike nonhuman animals, humans’ behavior is totally learned.
A
B: Humans share many inherited behaviors but are mostly influenced by learning.
22
Q
Animals with smaller brains and simpler nervous systems have mostly _____ behaviors, whereas animals with larger brains and more complex nervous systems have mostly _____ behaviors. A) learned; inherited B) inherited; learned C) innate; inherited D) learned; innate
A
B) inherited; learned
23
Q
The hypothesis that the psyche is responsible for behavior was expounded by: A) Charles Darwin. B) René Descartes. C) Aristotle. D) Socrates.
A
C: Aristotle
24
Q
Mentalism is: A) the study of the mind. B) mental imagery. C) the notion that the mind is responsible for behavior. D) another word for mindfulness.
A
C: the notion that the mind is responsible for behavior.
25
The _____ is a nonmaterial entity that is responsible for intelligence, attention, awareness, and consciousness. A) brain B) heart C) mind D) conscience
C: Mind
26
The notion that the mind resides in the pineal body comes from: A) Charles Darwin. B) René Descartes. C) Aristotle. D) Socrates.
B: Rene Descartes
27
According to the philosophy of dualism: A) the body influences the mind. B) the pineal body is the mind. C) the pineal body influences the body by directing fluids from the ventricles to the muscles. D) the pineal body is the mind and influences the body by directing fluids from the ventricles to the muscles.
C) the pineal body influences the body by directing fluids from the ventricles to the muscles.
28
Subsequent research indicated that the pineal body was responsible for _____ rather than controlling human behavior. A) vision B) problem solving C) movement D) biological rhythms
D) biological rhythms
29
The difficulty in explaining how a nonmaterial mind can influence a material body has become known as: A) the mind problem. B) the mind–body problem. C) the brain problem. D) None of the answers is correct
B) the mind–body problem.
30
Descartes’s followers would argue: A) the mind and the body are separate at birth. B) humans and very few other animals have minds. C) children do not have minds. D) the mentally ill have minds.
C: Children do not have minds.
31
The notion that all behavior can be explained by the workings of the brain is commonly referred to as: A) psychology. B) experimentalism. C) materialism. D) dualism.
C: Materialism
32
The notion that all living things are related was put forward by: A) Charles Darwin. B) Alfred Russel Wallace. C) Gregor Mendel. D) both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.
D) both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.
33
The notion that differential success in the reproduction of characteristics results from interactions between organisms and their environment is known as: A) natural selection. B) genetic theory. C) biological theory. D) innate behavior.
A) natural selection.
34
Images of blood flow in the brain in monkeys have demonstrated that: A) humans and monkeys use different brain areas for language. B) humans and monkeys use the same brain areas for language. C) monkeys show no brain activation for language because they cannot understand language. D) None of the answers is correct.
B) humans and monkeys use the same brain areas for language
35
Studies examining language learning in chimpanzees have demonstrated that: A) chimpanzees are able to learn sign language. B) chimpanzees are able to learn symbolic languages. C) chimpanzees are able to associate specific vocalizations with a particular context or object. D) All of the answers are correct.
Studies examining language learning in chimpanzees have demonstrated that: A) chimpanzees are able to learn sign language. B) chimpanzees are able to learn symbolic languages. C) chimpanzees are able to associate specific vocalizations with a particular context or object. D) All of the answers are correct.
36
Individual variation in plants and animals was first explained by: A) Charles Darwin. B) Alfred Russel Wallace. C) Gregor Mendel. D) both Charles Darwin and Gregor Mendel.
C: Gregor Mendel
37
The study of how genetic expression is related to the environment and experience is known as: A) genotyping. B) phenotyping. C) epigenetics. D) environmental genetics.
C: Epigenetics.
38
Which of the following is a conclusion that is necessitated by materialism? A) Because all animal species are related, their brains must also be related. B) Because all animal species are related, their behavior must also be related. C) The brains of complex organisms like humans evolved from the brains of simpler organisms. D) All of the answers are correct
D: All of the answers are correct.
39
Inherited behavior: A) is demonstrated only by animal instincts. B) includes emotional expressions in humans. C) cannot include emotional expressions in humans because the behavior is learned. D) includes emotional expression in animals but not in humans.
B) includes emotional expressions in humans.
40
Of the 100,000 people in the United States who may become comatose in a given year, how many recover consciousness? A) 5 percent B) 20 percent C) 30 percent D) 50 percent
B) 20 percent
41
A person who can display some rudimentary behaviors such as smiling or blinking but is otherwise not conscious is described as being: A) in a coma. B) in a persistent vegetative state. C) in a minimally conscious state. D) brain dead.
C: Minimally conscious state.
42
In a study with a patient in a minimally conscious state, Schiff and colleagues found that _____ led to dramatic improvements in the patient’s behavior. A) deep brain stimulation. B) reading to the patient. C) music therapy. D) gene therapy.
A: Deep Brain stimulation.
43
The first humanlike brain evolved: A) 700 million years ago. B) 250 million years ago. C) 6 million years ago. D) 100,000 to 200,000 years ago.
C: 6 million years ago.
44
The first brain evolved approximately: A) 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. B) 3 million to 4 million years ago. C) 250 million years ago. D) 700 million years ago.
C: 250 million years ago.
45
More advanced nervous systems often have similar structures on the left and right sides (e.g., the left and right hemispheres of the brain). This concept is known as: A) mirroring. B) bilateral symmetry. C) bilateral structures. D) mirror symmetry.
B: Bilateral symmetry
46
The human spinal cord is a great example of the concept of: A) segmentation. B) functional independence. C) functional specialization. D) None of the answers is correct.
A) segmentation
47
Which of the following sequences is correct? A) phylum, order, class, family, genus, species B) phylum, class, order, family, genus, species C) phylum, class, family, order, genus, species D) phylum, family, class, order, genus, species
B) phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
48
The branch of biology that is concerned with naming and classifying species is: A) genetics. B) embryology. C) taxonomy. D) evolutionary biology.
C) taxonomy
49
Humans, monkeys, Neanderthals, and chimpanzees all belong to the same: A) species B) genus C) family D) order
D) order
50
Humans, tigers, dogs, and monkeys are all part of the same: A) species B) class C) genus D) family
B) class
51
A notochord is: A) a spinal cord and a brain. B) a longitudinal flexible rod in the back. C) a segmented spine. D) a segmented spine and spinal cord.
B) a longitudinal flexible rod in the back.
52
Chordates are any organisms that have: A) a brain B) a spinal cord C) a peripheral nervous system D) a brain and a spinal cord
D) a brain and a spinal cord
53
The correct order of the evolution of nervous systems from simple to complex is: A) nerve net, segmentation, ganglia, spinal cord, brain. B) spinal cord, nerve net, brain, ganglia, segmentation. C) brain, spinal cord, nerve net, segmentation, ganglia. D) ganglia, nerve net, segmentation, brain, spinal cord.
A) nerve net, segmentation, ganglia, spinal cord, brain
54
Taxonomists have classified approximately 1 million species into: A) 10 phyla. B) 15 phyla. C) 20 phyla. D) 25 phyla.
B: 15 phyla.
55
Insects have: A) only nerve nets. B) only a few ganglia. C) enough ganglia to be called a brain. D) the same brain organization as a chordate.
C: Enough Ganglia to be called a Brain.
56
The correct order of organisms from the least complex to the most complex nervous system is: A) flatworm, frog, squid, anemone B) anemone, frog, flatworm, squid C) anemone, flatworm, squid, frog D) frog, anemone, squid, flatworm
C: Anemone, flatoworm, squid, frog.
57
Other than humans, which chordate has the largest forebrain? A) reptiles B) amphibians C) birds D) bony fish
C: Birds.
58
Increased brain size and increased folding are most prominent in which chordate species? A) birds B) dolphins C) primates D) both primates and dolphins
D) both primates and dolphins
59
The primate order contains approximately: A) 275 species. B) 375 species. C) 475 species. D) 575 species.
A) 275 species.
60
Humans are most closely related to: A) gibbons. B) orangutans. C) chimpanzees. D) gorillas
C) chimpanzees.
61
The first primate to walk upright similar to humans was: A) Homo erectus. B) Homo habilis. C) Neanderthals. D) Australopithecus
D) Australopithecus
62
The oldest fossils that have been identified as human are approximately: A) 5 million years old. B) 200,000 years old. C) 2 million years old. D) 1 million years old.
C) 2 million years old.
63
Modern humans appeared approximately: A) 50,000 years ago. B) 200,000 years ago. C) 100,000 years ago. D) 1 million years ago.
B) 200,000 years ago.
64
Which of our human ancestors had the largest brain size? A) Australopithecus. B) Neanderthals. C) Homo habilis. D) Homo erectus. Ans: B Page: 21 T
B) Neanderthals.
65
Which of the following sequences is in the correct order from smallest to largest brain size? A) Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Neanderthals B) Homo erectus, Homo habilis, Australopithecus, Neanderthals C) Neanderthals, Homo erectus, Homo habilis, Australopithecus D) Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Neanderthals, Australopithecus
A) Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Neanderthals
66
Homo sapiens coexisted with: A) Homo erectus. B) Homo habilis. C) Neanderthals. D) Australopithecus.
C: Neanderthals.
67
The idea that species exhibiting more complex behaviors will possess relatively larger brains is summed up by the idea of: A) principle of proper mass. B) encephalization. C) principle of mass action. D) relativization.
A) principle of proper mass.
68
The encephalization quotient is determined by: A) measuring the size of an animal’s brain. B) measuring the weight of an animal’s brain. C) relating actual brain size to expected brain size. D) comparing the brain size of different species to one another.
C) relating actual brain size to expected brain size.
69
Which of the following has the largest encephalization quotient? A) monkey B) chimpanzee C) Homo habilis D) dolphin
D: Dolphin.
70
Which of the following theories is not likely to be related to the evolution of our large brain? A) primate lifestyle B) slowed maturation C) brain cooling D) our increase in cranium capacity
D: Our increase in cranium capacity
71
Dunbar proposed that group sizes of about _____ tend to be correlated with increased brain size in primates. A) 50 B) 100 C) 150 D) more than 200
C: 150
72
Potts proposed that climate change may have placed pressure on apes to adapt to their environment. Specifically, he proposed that apes that lived in _____ climates may have begun to walk upright. A) drier B) wetter C) colder D) coastal
A: Drier
73
Vegetation eaters have: A) larger brains than fruit eaters. B) smaller brains than fruit eaters. C) greater social skills than fruit eaters. D) larger brains and greater social skills than fruit eaters.
B) smaller brains than fruit eaters.
74
Research has demonstrated that animals with larger brains tend to: A) eat fruit. B) live in larger groups. C) have a slower maturation process. D) All of the answers are correct.
D: All of the answers are correct.
75
Eating fruit favors a larger brain because it: A) requires good sensory skills. B) requires good fine motor skills. C) requires good memory skills. D) All of the answers are correct.
D) All of the answers are correct.
76
Fruit-eating primates: A) have a smaller brain than vegetation eaters. B) eat more glucose and thus have a larger brain than vegetation eaters. C) forage more than vegetation eaters and thus have a larger brain. D) None of the answers is correct
C) forage more than vegetation eaters and thus have a larger brain.
77
How much of the body’s glucose supply does the brain use? A) 25 percent B) 50 percent C) 70 percent D) 80 percent
C) 70 percent
78
The brain uses ____ of the body’s oxygen and _____ of the body’s glucose. A) 70 percent; 25 percent B) 50 percent; 25 percent C) 90 percent; 50 percent D) 25 percent; 70 percent
D) 25 percent; 70 percent
79
Humans are classed as: A) fruit eaters. B) vegetation eaters. C) both fruit and vegetation eaters. D) a separate category from vegetation and fruit eaters.
A: Fruit Eaters
80
The radiator hypothesis is a theory relating to: A) cooling of the brain by blood flow. B) cooling of the brain by cerebral spinal fluid. C) cooling of the brain by blood flow and cerebral spinal fluid. D) None of the answers is correct.
A: cooling of the brain by blood flow.
81
How much of the body’s oxygen supply is used by the brain? A) 25 percent B) 50 percent C) 70 percent D) 80 percent
A: 25 percent.
82
Compared to Australopithecus skulls, human skulls contain holes through which blood vessels could pass. This would have led to: A) better brain cooling. B) increased brain size. C) changes in diet. D) both better brain cooling and increased brain size.
D) both better brain cooling and increased brain size.
83
Stedman and colleagues argue that changes in facial muscles and facial bones in early hominids may have led to: A) smaller bones. B) changes in mating patterns. C) changes in hunting strategies. D) None of the answers is correct.
A: Smaller bones.
84
Our small face, vaulted cranium, upright mobility, and distribution of hair are features that link us with juvenile chimps. This illustrates: A) natural selection. B) neoteny. C) selective dominant traits. D) selective environmental influences
B: neoteny
85
One of the benefits of neoteny is that it allows for: A) time for more brain cells to be produced. B) greater genetic diversity. C) greater variety in diet. D) None of the answers is correct.
A) time for more brain cells to be produced.
86
Brain size is correlated with: A) plasticity. B) body size. C) nutrition. D) All of the answers are correct
D) All of the answers are correct.
87
If one person has a brain weighing 1000 grams and another has a brain weighing 1500 grams, the difference most likely reflects: A) a major difference in intelligence. B) water content. C) body size. D) both water content and body size.
C) body size.
88
Which of the following is not correlated with brain size? A) health B) cause of death C) age D) intelligence
D) intelligence
89
Comparing intelligence between species is difficult because we are typically reduced to comparing: A) differences in brain size. B) differences in mating patterns. C) differences in species-typical behaviors. D) None of the answers is correct.
C: differences in species-typical behaviors.
90
_____ is the complex learned behaviors passed on from one generation to another. A) Neoteny B) Evolution C) Culture D) Intelligence
C: Culture
91
The acquisition of culture by humans stems most directly from: A) an evolved ability for high mental flexibility. B) our larger brain. C) improved diet. D) the invention of smartphones
A: an evolved ability for high mental flexibility.
92
What are the two types of tests Descartes proposed?
A language test and an action test. For the language test one must use language to describe and reason about things not phyiscallly present. The action test requires behaviour based on reasoning.
93
What is a Phenotype?
A set of characteristics that can be seen or measured.
94
What is a species?
A group of organisms that can interbreed.
95
What does the Anglo Saxon word mind mean?
Memory
96
What is Psyche a synonym for?
Synonym for mind. An entity once proposed to be the source of human behaviour.
97
What is Mentalism?
Behaviour is explained by a nonmaterial mind.
98
What is Dualism?
Philosophical position that both a nonmaterial mind and material body contribute to behaviour.
99
What is the mind-body problem?
The difficulty of explaining how a nonmaterial mind and a phyiscal body interact.
100
What is Materialism?
The idea that rational behavior can be fully explained b the brain and the nervous system, without any need to refer to an immaterial mind. It defines consciousness as an entity, attribute or thing.
101
What is Natural Selection?
darwin’s theory for explaining how new species evolve and how existing species change over time. differential success in the reproduction of different characteristics (phenotypes) results from the interaction of organisms with their environment.
102
What is Genotype?
The particular genetic makeup of an individual?
103
What is Epigenetics?
differences in gene expression related to environment and experience.
104
What is Eliminative Materialism?
The philosophical position that if behavior can be described adequately without recourse to the mind, then mental explanation should be eliminated. An understanding of Brain function they argue can replace mental explanations of things like pain and consciousness.
105
What is a minimally conscious state?
Minimally conscious state (mCs) condition in which a person can display some rudimentary behaviors, such as smiling or uttering a few words, but is otherwise not conscious.
However, they have a great deal of functional brain tissue left.
106
How many people in the US contend with Traumatic Brain Injury and how many deal with comas?
1.4 million people contend with TBI. 100,000 people enter comas. Few as 20 percent recover consciousness.
107
What is a persistent vegetative State?
persistent vegetative state (pvs) condition in which a person is alive but unable to communicate or to functi
108
What is the Glascow Coma Scale?
, an objective indicator of the degree of unconsciousness and of recovery from unconsciousness. The GCS rates eye movement, body movement, and speech on a 15-point scale. A low score indicates coma and a high score indicates consciousness.
Thus, the ability to follow commands, to eat, to speak, and even to watch TV provide objective measures of consciousness that contrast sharply with the mentalistic description that sees consciousness as a single entity.
These quantifiable measures of consciousness contrast sharply with the qualitative description that sees consciousness as a single entity.
109
1. the view that behavior is the product of an intangible entity called the mind (psyche) is .......(1) the notion that the immaterial mind acts through the material brain to produce language and rational behavior is ......(2). (3)....is , the view that brain function fully accounts for all behavior, guides contemporary research on the brain and behavior.
1: Mentalism
2: Dualism.
3: Materialism.
110
the implication that the brains and behaviors of complex animals such as humans evolved from the brains and behaviors of simpler animals draws on the theory of.....(1) advanced by ...(2)...
(1) Natural selection.
| (2) Charles Darwin.
111
.....(1) is a wound to the brain that results from a blow to the head. the brain demonstrates a remarkable ability to recover, even after severe brain injury, but an injured person may linger in a (2)...., occasionally able to communicate with single words or to follow simple commands but otherwise not conscious. those who suffer such extensive brain damage that no recovery can be expected remain in a.....(3) , alive but unable to communicate or to function independently at even the most basic level
(1) Traumatic Brain Injury.
(2) Minimally conscious State
(3) Persistent Vegetative State.
112
What is a Nerve Net?
Nerve net is a Simple nervous system that has no brain or spinal cord (no center) but consists of neurons that receive sensory information and connect directly to other neurons that move muscles
The nervous system representative of evolutionarily older phyla, such as jellyfishes and sea anemones, is extremely simple. It consists of a diffuse nerve net, which has no structure that resembles a brain or spinal cord but consists entirely of neurons that receive sensory information and connect directly to other neurons that move muscles. Look again at the human nervous system illustrated in Figure 1-2. Now imagine that the brain and spinal cord have been removed. The human PNS is reminiscent of the nerve net of phylogenetically simpler animals.
113
What is Common Ancestor?
forebearer from which two or more lineages or family groups arise and so is ancestral to both groups.
114
What is Bilateral Symmetry?
Bilateral symmetry is a Body plan in which organs or parts present on both sides of the body are mirror images in appearance. for example, the hands are bilaterally symmetrical, whereas the heart is not.
115
When did the first brain evolve and when did the first brain cells evolved?
The first brain evolved 250 million years ago and the first animal brain cells evolved 750 million years ago.
116
When did the first human like brain evolve and how long have modern human brains been around?
The first human like brain evolved around 6 million years ago and modern human brains have been around for only the past 200,000 years.
117
In what order did the Nervous system evolve? ( 7 steps)
```
1: Neurons and Muscles
2 Nerve Net
3: Bilateral Symmetry.
4:Segmentation
5:Ganglia
6:Spinal Cord
7:Brain
```
118
What taxonomy groups do humans belong to?
Humans belong to the animal kingdom, the chordate phylum, the mammalian class, the primate order, the great ape family, the homo genus, and the sapiens species. animals are usually identified by their genus and species names. So we humans are called homo sapiens, meaning “wise humans.”
119
What is a segmented Nerve Trunk?
Bilaterally symmetrical organization.
120
What is a Ganglia?
A structure and collection of nerve cells that resembles and function somewhat like a brain.
In still more recently evolved phyla including clams, snails, and octopuses, are clusters of neurons called ganglia that resemble primitive brains and function somewhat like them in that they are “command centers.” In some phyla, encephalization, meaning that the ganglia are found in the head, becomes distinctive. For example, insects have ganglia in the head that are sufficiently large to merit the term brain.
121
What are Chordates?
Animals that have both a brain and spinal cord.
122
What evolution of two structures are most closely related to complex behaviours?
Cerebrum and Cerebellum
The evolution of more complex behavior in chordates is closely related to the evolution of the cerebrum and of the cerebellum. Their increasing size in different classes of chordates is illustrated in Figure 1-8. The increases accommodate new behaviors, including new forms of locomotion on land, complex movements of the mouth and hands for
eating, improved learning ability, and highly organized social behavior. The cerebrum and the cerebellum are proportionately small and smooth in the earliest evolved classes (e.g., fish, amphibians, and reptiles). In later evolved chordates, especially the birds and mammals, these structures become much more prominent. In many large-brained mammals, both structures are extensively folded, which greatly increases their surface area while allowing them to fit into a small skull (just as folding a large piece of paper enables it to occupy a small container such as an envelope). Increased size and folding become particularly pronounced in dolphins and primates, the animals with the largest brains relative to their body size. Because relatively large brains with a complex cerebrum and cerebellum have evolved in a number of animal lineages, humans are neither unique nor special in these respects. We humans are distinguished, however, in belonging to a lineage, the primates, that has large brains, and we are unique in having the largest brain of all animals relative to body size.
123
Because brain cells and muscles evolved only once in the animal kingdom, a similar basic pattern exists in the (1) of all animals.
(1) Nervous Systems
124
evolutionary relationships among the nervous systems of animal lineages are classified by increasing complexity and progress from the simplest (1) to a (2) .... segmented nervous system to nervous systems controlled by (3) to, eventually, nervous systems featuring a brain and spinal cord in the (4) phylum.
(1) Nerve Net
(2) Bilaterally segmented nervous system.
(3) Ganglia
(4) Chordate
125
What do Primates have?
Excellent colour vision. with the eyes positioned at the front of the face to enhance depth perception, and they use this highly developed sense to deftly guide their hand movements.
Apes are arboreal animals with limber shoulder joints that allow them to brachiate in trees (swing from one handhold to another), a trait retained by humans, who generally do not live in trees these days.
Apes are distinguished as well by their intelligence and large brains, traits that humans exemplify.
126
What living primates are we most closely related to?
Among the apes, we are most closely related to the chimpanzee, having had a common ancestor between 5 million and 10 million years ago. In the past 5 million years, many hominids—primates that walk upright—evolved in our lineage. During most of this time, a number of hominid species coexisted. At present, however, we are the only surviving hominid species.
127
What is Encephalization Quotient?
Harry Jerison’s quantitative measure of brain size obtained from the ratio of actual brain size to expected brain size, according to the principle of proper mass, for an animal of a particular body size.
128
What is the principal of proper Mass?
Harry Jerison uses the principle of proper mass to sum up the idea that species exhibiting more complex behaviors must possess relatively larger brains than species whose behaviors are less complex.
Jerison developed an index of brain size to compare the brains of different species relative to their differing body sizes. He calculated that, as body size increases, the size of the brain increases at about two-thirds the increase in body weight. He developed the Encephalization Quotient to do this.
A comparison of brain size and the complexity of behavior suggests that a larger brain is needed for increasingly complex behavior.
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What drove the evolution of Hominid specied evolution?
Climate Change. hominids were subjected to numerous, drastic climate changes that forced them to adapt and led to more complex behavior
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What are the four ideas/hypotheses about why the hominid brain enlarged?
1:Climate Change.
2:Primate Social group size as it influences who we know and how we forage. Foraging fruit is complicated task.
3: Changes in Hominid Physiology.
4:
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What is required to forage for Fruit?
Good sensory skills, such as color vision, are needed to recognize ripe fruit in a tree, and good motor skills are required to reach and manipulate it. Good spatial skills are needed to navigate to trees that contain fruit. Good memory skills are required to remember where fruit trees are, when the fruit will be ripe, and in which trees the fruit has already been eaten. Fruit eaters have to be prepared to deal with competitors, including members of their own species, who also want the fruit. To keep track of ripening fruit, having friends who can help search also benefits a fruit eater. As a result, successful fruit-eating animals tend to have complex social relations and a means of communicating with others of their species.
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What two adaptations might have given a special boost to greater brain size in our human ancestors?
1: Changes in the morphology of the Skull.
Radiator Hypothesis: Dean Falk developed the idea that
selection for improved brain cooling through increased blood circulation in the brains of early hominids enabled the brain to grow larger.
2:A second adaptation, identified by Hansell Stedman and his colleagues (2004), stems from a genetic mutation associated with marked size reductions in individual facial muscle fibers and entire masticatory muscles. The Stedman team speculates that smaller masticatory muscles in turn led to smaller and more delicate bones in the head. Smaller bones in turn allowed for changes in diet and an increase in brain size
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Why is Brain cooling important?
Brain cooling is important because, although your brain makes up less than 2 percent of your body weight, it uses 25 percent of your body’s oxygen and 70 percent of its glucose. As a result of all this metabolic activity, your brain generates a great deal of heat and is at risk of overheating under conditions of exercise or heat stress.
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What is Neotany?
Neoteny: juvenile stages of predecessors become the adult features of descendant. Derived from the observation that more recently evolved species resemble the young of their common ancestors.
Most brain cells in humans develop just before and after birth; so an extended prenatal and neonatal period would prolong the stage of life in which most brain cells are developing. This prolonged stage would, in turn, enable increased numbers of brain cells to develop. There are a number of views about what promotes neoteny. One view is that, at times of abundant resources, less physiologically and behaviorally mature individual organisms can successfully reproduce, yielding offspring that have this trait in common. This “babies having babies” could lead to a population in which individual members have immature physical features and behavioral traits in common though at the same time being sexually mature. Another view is that, at times of food insufficiency, maturation and reproduction are slowed, allowing a longer time for development.
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What is Culture?
Learned behaviors that are passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and experience.
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Behavior that is displayed by all members of a species is called (1)
(1) Behaviour that is characteristic for all members of a species.
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What distinguishes Homo Sapiens Brains?
They evolved a capacity for high flexibility in accommodating knowledge and culture which allows them to learn many things they did not evolve to.
