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History Of Psychology > Chapter 1- Introduction > Flashcards

Chapter 1- Introduction Flashcards

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1
Q

How does the author define psychology?

A

Psychology is defined by the professional activities of psychologists

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2
Q

The study of the proper way to write history

A

Historiography

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3
Q

What is the literal meaning of the word psychology?

A

The study of psyche, or the mind

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4
Q

Some people believe that a history of psychology should begin at about the time it became a separate science, around the middle of the 19th century. Cite the authors counter arguments to this view. 2 reasons

A

It ignores the vast philosophical heritage that molded psychology into the type of science it eventually became

It omits important aspects of psychology that are outside the realm of science

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5
Q

Using the present state as a guide in writing history. Attempts to understand the past in terms of contemporary knowledge and standards

A

Presentism

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6
Q

The study of the past for its own sake without attempting to show the relationship between the past and the present

A

Historicism

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7
Q

What are the relative merits of using the presentism or historicism approach?

A

Presentism implies that the present state of a discipline represents its highest state of development in that earlier events led directly to this state. The latest is the best. May not be the best approach, because the field is too diverse to make such a judgment.

Using psychology’s present as a frame of reference, therefore, does not necessarily assume that psychologies past evolve into its present or the current psychology represents the best psychology because psychology is exploring many topics, methods, and assumptions. In general it is assumed in this textbook that historicism provides a better framework for understanding psychology’s history

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8
Q

What considerations are involved in deciding what to include in the history of psychology?

A

How much detail to include.

Choice of approach

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9
Q

A spirit of the time, which many historians consider vital to the understanding of any historical development. Emphasize the influence of such non-psychological factors as developments, other sciences, political climate, technological advancement, and economic conditions.

A

Zeitgeist

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10
Q

Emphasizes the works of great individuals such as Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Darwin, or Freud

A

The great-person approach

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11
Q

Showing how various individuals or events contributed to changes in an idea or concept through the years

A

Historical development approach

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12
Q

What choice of approach to the author decide to use?

A

The author combines the Zeitgeist, the great-person, and the historical development approach is to writing history. Sometimes the spirit of the time seems to produce great individuals and sometimes great individuals influence the spirit of the times. It is an eclectic approach.

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13
Q

One of the reasons for studying the history of psychology. Allows students to more fully appreciate the subject matter of modern psychology which can be humbling and sometimes frustrating

A

Perspective

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14
Q

One of the reasons for studying the history of psychology. The student doesn’t need to take on faith the importance of the subject matter of modern psychology. A student with the historical awareness knows where psychology subject matter came from and why it is considered important.

A

Deeper understanding

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15
Q

A reason for studying the history of psychology. The realize Asian that you points do not always fade away because they are incorrect, something points disappear simply because they become unpopular. What is popular in psychology varies with the zeitgeist

A

Recognition of fads and fashions

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16
Q

A reason for studying the history of psychology. Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. So you do not waste time and energy repeating past mistakes

A

Avoiding repetition of mistakes

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17
Q

A reason for studying the history of psychology. May discover ideas that were developed at an earlier time but, for whatever reason, remain dormant. Some conditions are better suited for the acceptance of an idea than others

A

A source of valuable ideas

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18
Q

A reason for studying the history of psychology. Why not? Wanting to know as much as possible about a topic or person of interest is natural.

A

Curiosity

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19
Q

Why did Galileo and Kant claim that psychology could never be a science?

A

Because of its concern with subjective experience

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20
Q

The direct observation of nature

A

Empirical observation

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21
Q

Organizing observations or categorizing them in someway and then attempting to explain them

A

Theory

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22
Q

The philosophical belief that knowledge can be attained only by engaging in some type of systematic mental activity

A

Rationalism

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23
Q

The belief that the basis of all knowledge experience

A

Empiricism

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24
Q

Traditionally, a proposed explanation of a number of empirical observations; according to popper, a proposed solution to a problem

A

Scientific theory

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25
Q

What are the two functions of a scientific theory

A

Organizing empirical observations and acting as a guide for future observations

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26
Q

Within science, propositions capable of validation through empirical tests

A

Confirmable propositions

Helps the theory to gain strength when the propositions are confirmed through experimentation, and lose strength if they are not. Helps to revise or abandon theories

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27
Q

A consistently observed relationship between classes of empirical events

A

A scientific law

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28
Q

The stipulation that scientific laws must be available for any interested person to observe. Science is interested in general, empirical relationships that are publicly verifiable

A

Public observation

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29
Q

Laws that specify the systematic relationships among classes of empirical events. How classes of events vary together in some systematic way

A

Correlational laws.

For example, scores on intelligence test tend to correlation positively with scores and creativity guess.

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30
Q

Laws describing causal relationships. Such laws specify the conditions that are necessary and sufficient to produce a certain event.

A

Causal laws. Knowledge of causal laws allows both the prediction and control of events

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31
Q

Describe the difficulties in identifying causes

A

With correlational causes, only prediction is possible, not causation.

Specifying the causes of natural events is highly complex and usually required substantial experimental research. Also, events seldom, if ever, have a single cause. They usually have multiple causes

32
Q

The belief that everything that occurs does so because of known or knowable causes and that if these causes were known in advance, an event could be predicted with complete accuracy.

A

Determinism

33
Q

Describe Karl Popper’s objections to the traditional view of scientific activity

A

He disagreed that scientific activity starts with empirical observation. He believed that scientific activity starts with the problem, and the problem determines what observations scientists will make. The next step is to propose solutions to the problem and then attempt to find fault with proposed solutions.

34
Q

Poppers contention that for a theory to be considered scientific it must specify the observations that, if made, would refute the theory. To be considered Scientific, a theory must make risky predictions.

A

Principle of falsifiability

35
Q

Explaining phenomena after they have already occurred

A

Postdiction

Post addiction is contrasted with prediction, which attempt to specify the conditions under which an event that has not yet occurred will occur

36
Q

Describe poppers views on theories

A

The demarcation criterion that distinguishes the scientific theory from a non-scientific theory is the principal falsifiability, a scientific theory must be refutable. If any conceivable observation agrees with a theory, the theory is weak

For a theory to be scientific, it must make risky predictions that run a real risk of being incorrect

It is a theories incorrect predictions, rather then it’s correct ones that cause scientific progress

All scientific theories will eventually be found to be false and will be replaced by more adequate theories, it is just a matter of time. The highest status that a scientific theory can attain is not yet confirmed

37
Q

Describe Thomas Kuhn’s conception of scientific activity

A

He show that science could be a highly subjective enterprise

38
Q

According to Kuhn, the research activities performed by scientists as they explore the implications of a paradigm

A

Normal science

39
Q

According to Thomas Kuhn, _______ ________ is like puzzle solving in that the problems worked on are specified by a paradigm, the problems have guaranteed solutions, and certain rules must be followed in arriving at those solutions

A

Puzzle solving

40
Q

Persistent observations that cannot be explained by an existing paradigm. Eventually cause one paradigm to displace another

A

Anomalies

41
Q

What are Thomas Kuhn’s three stages of scientific development?

A

Pre-paradigmatic stage
Paradigmatic stage
Revolutionary stage

42
Q

According to Kuhn, The first stage in the development of a science. This stage is characterized by warring factors vying to define the subject matter and methodology of a discipline. A number of competing viewpoints exist until one school succeeds in defeating its competitors and becomes a paradigm.

A

Pre-paradigmatic stage

43
Q

According to Kuhn, The stage in the development of a science during which scientific activity is guided by a paradigm. During this stage, The puzzle-solving activity called normal science occurs.

A

Paradigmatic stage

44
Q

According to Kuhn, The stage of scientific development during which an existing paradigm is displaced buy a new one. Once the displacement is complete, the new paradigm generates normal science and continues doing so until it too is eventually displaced by new paradigm

A

Revolutionary stage

45
Q

According to Hergenhahn, at what stage is contemporary psychology?

A

Psychology is a multiparadigmatic discipline rather then a discipline at the pre-paradigmatic stage of development.

46
Q

Describe Feyerabend’s analysis of the rules and methods in science

A

Any attempt to characterize science is misleading. There is no one scientific method or principal, and any description of science must focus on the creativity and determination of individual scientists. He believed that scientists should follow no prescribe set of rules and that whatever rules do exist must be broken in order for scientific progress to occur

47
Q

The type of determinism that stresses the biochemical, genetic, physiological, or anatomical causes of behavior.

A

Biological determinism

48
Q

The type of determinism that stresses causes of behavior that are external to the organism

A

Environmental determinism

49
Q

The type of environmental determinism that stresses cultural or societal rules, customs, regulations, or expectations as the causes of behavior

A

Socio-cultural determinism

50
Q

The type of determinism that stresses material, or quantifiable causes of behavior.

A

Physical determinism

51
Q

The type of determinism that stress is mental causes of behavior. The most important determinants of human behavior are subjective and include a persons beliefs, emotions, sensations, perceptions, ideas, values, and goals

A

Psychical determinism

52
Q

What did Freud mean when he said that much behavior is overdetermined?

A

Behavior is seldom, if ever, caused by a single event or even a few events. Rather, a multitude of interacting events typically causes behavior

53
Q

Define Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and describe its relevance to psychological research

A

Believed that human behavior is determined but that the causes of behavior cannot be accurately measured. Heisenberg found that the very act of observing an electron influences it’s activity and cast doubt on the validity of the observation. He concluded that nothing can ever be known with certainty in science.

Relevance to psychological research: although he would be a very is determined, we can never learn at least some causes of behavior because in attempting to observe then we change them. The experimental setting itself may act as a confounding variable in the search for the causes of human behavior

54
Q

The contention that even though determinism is true, attempting to measure the causes of something influences those causes, making it impossible to know them the certainty.

A

Indeterminism

55
Q

Behavior is freely chosen and thus independent of physical or psychical causes

A

Free will

56
Q

The belief that human thought or behavior is freely chosen by the individual and is therefore not caused by antecedent physical or mental events. Because the individual freely chooses courses of action, he or she alone is responsible for them

A

Nondeterminism

57
Q

Do nondeterminists hold people responsible for their actions?

A

Yes, because the individual freely choose his courses of action, they alone are responsible for them

58
Q

Define William James’s notions of hard and soft determinism

A

Hard determinism: the causes of human behavior are thought to function in an automatic, mechanistic manner and thus render the notion of personality responsibility meaningless

Soft determinism: cognitive processes such as intentions, motives, beliefs, and values intervene between experience and behavior. See human behaviour as resulting from thoughtful deliberation of the options available in a given situation

59
Q

Do soft determinists hold people responsible for their actions?

A

Yes, because rational processes manifest themselves prior to actions, the person bears responsibility for those actions.

60
Q

What does Hergenhahn conclude regarding whether psychology is a science?

A

Some concepts in psychology have a long philosophical heritage and are ready to be treated scientifically; other concepts are still in the early stages of development and are not ready for scientific development; and still other concepts, by their very nature, may never be amenable to scientific inquiry. All these levels and types of inquiry appear necessary for the growth of psychology, and all sustain one another

61
Q

Describe the essential features of the 10 persistent questions in psychology

A
  1. What is the nature of human nature?
    - attempts to specify what all humans are equipped with at birth. How much of our animal heritage remains in human nature? Are we inherently aggressive or basically good and nonviolent or neutral? Do humans possess a free will?
  2. How are the mind and body related?
  3. To what extent are human attributes such as intelligence inherited and to what extent are they determined by experience? Nativism versus Empiricism
  4. Is human behavior completely explicative all in terms of mechanical laws? Mechanism versus vitalism
  5. Is human behavior rational or irrational?
    - rationalistic explanations of human behavior usually emphasize the importance of logical, systematic, and intelligent thought processes and tends to search for the abstract universal principles that govern events in the empirical world.
    Irrationalism stresses human feelings over human rationality. The true causes of behavior are unconscious and cannot be pondered rationally
  6. How are humans related to nonhuman animals?
  7. What is the origin of human knowledge?
    • what can we know? What are the limits of knowledge? How is knowledge attained?
  8. Objective versus subjective reality.
    • what is really present physically (physical or objective reality) and what we actually experience mentally (subjective or phenomenal reality)
  9. How has the concept of self been used throughout psychology’s history to account for one’s continuity of experience over time, and what are the problems associated with the concept of self?
  10. Are there knowable universal truths about the world in general or about people in particular, or must truths always be relative to individual or group perspectives? Universalism versus relativism
62
Q

Those who believe that everything in the universe is material or physical, including those things that others refer to as mental

A

Materialists

63
Q

Those who believe that ultimately reality consists of ideas or perceptions and is therefore not physical

A

Idealists

64
Q

Anyone who believes that there are two aspects to humans, one physical and one mental.

A

Dualist

65
Q

Anyone who believes that important human attributes such as intelligence are largely inherited

A

Nativist

66
Q

The belief that the behavior of organisms, including humans, can be explained entirely in terms of mechanical laws

A

Mechanism

67
Q

The belief that life cannot be explained in terms of inanimate processes. Life requires a force that is more than the material objects or inanimate processes in which it manifests itself. For there to be life, there must be a vital force present. Life can never be completely reduced to material things and mechanical laws

A

Vitalism

68
Q

The philosophical belief that knowledge can be attained only by engaging in some type of systematic mental activity

A

Rationalism

69
Q

Any explanation of human behavior stressing determinants that are not under rational control-for example, explanations that emphasize the importance of emotions or unconscious mechanisms

A

Irrationalism

70
Q

The study of the nature of knowledge

A

Epistemology

71
Q

A mind that simply reflects cognitively one’s experiences with the physical world. The empiricist assumes this kind of mind. Represents physical experiences as mental images, recollections, and associations, or in other words, is reflecting cognitively what is occurring or what has occurred in the physical world

A

A passive mind

72
Q

A mind that transforms, interprets, understands, or values physical experience. The rationalists assume this kind of mind

A

An active mind

73
Q

The belief that what one experiences mentally is the same as what is present physically

A

Naïve realism

74
Q

The belief that extractions for which we have names have an existence independent of their names

A

Reification

75
Q

The belief that there are universal truth about ourselves and about the physical world in general that can be discovered by anyone using the proper methods of inquiry

A

Universalism

76
Q

The belief that because all experience must be filtered through individual and group perspectives, the search for universal truths that exist independently of human experience must be in vain. There is no one truth, only truths

A

Relativism

77
Q

Why is it difficult to provide a definition of psychology?

A

No single definition of psychology can take into consideration the wide variety of activities engaged in

History Of Psychology (19 decks)

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