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Microbiology > Chapter 1: Intro to Microbiology > Flashcards

Chapter 1: Intro to Microbiology Flashcards

1
Q

What is microbiology?

A

The study of the microbial world

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2
Q

What are microorganisms?

A

Living organisms that include bacteria, protozoa, fungi and some algae that are not visible to the the naked eye.

cellular in structure

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3
Q

What is a microbe?

A

Includes all microorganisms along with viruses and prions

Viruses and prions are not made up of living organisms

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4
Q

Who is Robert Hooke?

A

1665 English Scientist

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5
Q

Who is Anthony van Leeuwenhoek?

A

1674 Dutch fabric merchant

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6
Q

What are living microorganisms?

A

Bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and some algae

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7
Q

What helped develop the scientific method?

A

Spontaneous generation

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8
Q

Who made the first “microscope” and observed animalcules?

A

Leeuwenhoek

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9
Q

Who hypothesized that invisible organisms may cause disease?

A

Fracastoro

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10
Q

Who made the first “modern microscope” and coined the word “cell”?

A

Hooke

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11
Q

What scientist created the “swan neck flask” experiment?

A

Pasteur

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12
Q

Who formulated the germ theory of disease?

A

Pasteur

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13
Q

Who discovered penicillin?

A

Hooke

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14
Q

Who studied causative agents of disease?

A

Robert Koch

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15
Q

What is the gold standard for determining disease causation?

A
  1. The same organism must be present in every case of the disease
  2. The organism must be isolated from the diseased host and grown in pure culture
  3. isolate must cause disease in healthy host
  4. must be re-isolated from diseased host
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16
Q

Who disproved Pasteur about spontaneous generation?

A

John Tyndall and Ferdinand Cohn

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17
Q

Who discovered endospores?

A

Ferdinand Cohn

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18
Q

What is etiology?

A

causative agents of disease

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19
Q

Who discovered agars?

A

Robert Koch

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20
Q

What did Robert Koch do?

A
  1. first pictures of bacteria
  2. staining techniques
    3.use of steam to sterilize
  3. petri dishes
  4. sterile lab techniques to transfer bacteria
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21
Q

What does zoonotic mean?

A

comes from animals

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22
Q

What are the good parts of microbes?

A

nitrogen fixing
carbon fixing
photosynthesis
decomposition
fermentation
bioremediation
digestion

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23
Q

What is nitrogen fixing?

A

-Process by which nitrogen gas (N2) is converted into ammonia (NH3)
-Nitrogen can then be incorporated into cellular material (amino acids-protein)

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24
Q

What is fermentation?

A

-Lactic acid producing bacteria
-Cheese, pickles, sour kraut
-Wine, beer

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25
Q

What is bioremediation?

A

-Use of microorganisms to remove toxins and pollutants from the environment
-Water waste treatment
-Oil spills

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26
Q

What are prokaryotes?

A

bacteria and archaea

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27
Q

What is the difference between bacteria and archaea?

A

Bacteria- have peptidoglycan cell walls

Archaea- don’t have peptidoglycan or cell walls

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28
Q

What constitutes a nomenclature name?

A

1) Capitalized genus

2) Lowercase species

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29
Q

How is prokaryotic digestion different from eukaryotic?

A

Prokaryotic bacteria secrete digestive enzymes out of the cell to get macromolecules and deposit pieces back into the cell.

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30
Q

What are bacteria?

A

gram positive and gram negative

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31
Q

What is an example of an archaea?

A

halophiles

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32
Q

What are some examples of eukarya?

A

Fungi, animals, plants, algae, and protozoa

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33
Q

What do bacteria have?

A
  1. no nuclear membrane
  2. cell wall/ peptidoglycan
  3. ubiquitous
  4. no membrane-bound organelles
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34
Q

What do archaea have?

A
  1. no nuclear membrane
  2. no peptidoglycan
  3. ubiquitous
  4. no membrane bound organelles
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35
Q

What do eukarya have?

A
  1. nuclear membrane
  2. no peptidoglycan
  3. membrane bound organelles
  4. non-extreme environments
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36
Q

What does ubiquitous mean?

A

can live in almost any environment

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37
Q

What do algae have/ do?

A
  1. single-celled and multicellular
  2. photosynthetic
  3. primarily aquatic
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38
Q

What do fungi have/do?

A
  1. single celled and multicellular
  2. degradation/fermentation
  3. primarily terrestrial
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39
Q

What do protozoa have/do?

A
  1. single celled
  2. found anywhere
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40
Q

What are some non-living organisms?

A

Viruses, viroids, and prions

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41
Q

What describes a virus?

A

-RNA or DNA
-protein coats
-obligate intracellular pathogen
-infect plants, animals and microorganisms

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42
Q

What describes viroids?

A

-short RNA
-no protein coat
-infect plants

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43
Q

What describes prions?

A

-protein
-transfer a misfolded protein to healthy proteins

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44
Q

What is the cell structure of a prokaryote?

A

Cell envelope
-cytoplasmic membrane
-cell wall
-possibly a capsule

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45
Q

What does the cytoplasmic membrane of prokaryotes contain/do?

A

-separates in from out
-phospholipids
-trans-membrane proteins
—gates nutrients and waste
— fluid mosaic model
-selectively permeable through simple diffusion
—gases
—water by osmosis
—small hydrophobic molecules

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46
Q

How does water diffuse through the cytoplasmic membrane of a prokaryote?

A

water moves from hypotonic to hypertonic through osmosis

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47
Q

How does transport work in the cytoplasmic membrane?

A

Transport is performed by proteins embedded in the membrane

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48
Q

What is transported through the cytoplasmic membrane?

A

enzymes and extracellular proteins

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49
Q

What are enzymes?

A

secreted to digest saccharides that the cell can take in for nutrients

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50
Q

What does extracellular proteins do?

A

used for flagella and other proteins for motility

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51
Q

What is NAG?

A

N-acetylglucosamine

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52
Q

What is NAM?

A

N-acetylmuramic acid

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53
Q

What are NAG and NAM similar to?

A

glucose

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54
Q

What is NAM linked by?

A

linked by a peptide interbridge in gram + bacteria

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55
Q

What is NAM linked by?

A

has a tetrapeptide chain that directly links in gram -

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56
Q

List 5 characteristics of gram-positive bacteria

A
  1. Thick layer of peptidoglycan
  2. Teichoic Acids
  3. Single inner membrane
  4. Gel membrane underneath peptidoglycan layer
  5. NAG-NAM cross bridge
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57
Q

List 5 characteristics of gram-negative bacteria

A
  1. Thin layer of peptidoglycan
  2. Porins
  3. Two membranes, with periplasmic space in between
  4. LPS (endotoxin PAMP)
  5. NAG-NAM direct linkage
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58
Q

What is lipid A?

A

an endotoxin which causes inflammation

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59
Q

Where are porins in a gram - bacteria?

A

in the upper membrane

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60
Q

Differentiate capsules, slime layers, and biofilms

A

A: A gel capsule is a gel-like layer for protection/adherence (whipped cream)

B: Slime layers + Capsules contain glycocalyx (sugar shell), providing uniform, strong protection. (icing)

C: Biofilm: Polymer-encased community. Many layers. (Bunker for protection) Example: dental plaque

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61
Q

What is the importance of pili?

A

Pili help bacteria adhere to specific surfaces and move on solid surfaces. They also facilitate DNA transfer. Hide close to the surface to avoid leukocytes.

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62
Q

What is the functions of periplasm in gram - bacteria?

A

-nutrient degradation
-enzyme secretion
-electron transport
-xenobiotic metabolism

has the same function as the gel-like layer of gram + peptidoglycan layer

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63
Q

What is LPS?

A

lipopolysaccharide which is also an endotoxin

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64
Q

What is in a LPS?

A

O antigen and lipid A

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65
Q

Where is lipid A in LPS?

A

Anchored in the outer membrane

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66
Q

Where is the O antigen in LPS?

A

outer portion and is variable among bacteria

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67
Q

What are plasmids?

A

Plasmids are small loops of extra DNA that aren’t part of the chromosome. Plasmids contain genes for things like drug resistance and can be passed between bacteria.

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68
Q

What constitutes an endospore?

A

Sugar + Chromosome + Protein

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69
Q

What key features help differentiate eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells?

A

Eukaryotic: membrane-bound organelles (mostly), nucleus, most lack cell walls, plant cell walls have chitin and cellulose, single chromosome versus multiple.

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70
Q

What is different about eukaryotic cytoplasmic membrane transports compared to prokaryotes?

A

Eukaryotes can perform endocytosis, exocytosis, and fusion with lysosomes.

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71
Q

What eukaryotic structure is similar to cyanobacteria?

A

Chloroplasts. Plants and algae have mitochondria and chloroplasts.

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72
Q

What was Leeuwenhoek’s contribution to the science of microbiology?

A

He developed the first microscope.

73
Q

The investigations of which researcher finally disproved that living organisms can come from nonliving substances?

74
Q

Microbes that cause infectious diseases are called…

75
Q

One of the main differences between a Gram-positive and a Gram-negative bacterial cell wall is that the peptidoglycan portion of a Gram-positive cell wall is _____ as compared to a Gram-negative cell wall.

76
Q

The region between the outer and inner membranes of a Gram-negative bacterial cell is known as the __________, and it is the location of nutrient degradation.

77
Q

What does penicillin do?

A

inhibits the linkage of peptidoglycan. fungal product

78
Q

What does lysozyme do?

A

hydrolyzes the NAM-NAG linkages. It is the first line of defense. Made int he body

79
Q

True or false
Penicillin and Lysozymes are not more effective against gram + bacteria.

80
Q

What are mycoplasms?

A

They have no cell wall and are difficult to kill

81
Q

What are archaea?

A

They have a diverse cell wall structure and lack peptidoglycan.

82
Q

________________has a high number of sterols that provide rigidity

A

cytoplasmic membrane

83
Q

What describes the capsules of the cell envelope of prokaryotic cells?

A

-gel-like layer for protection and adherence
-Slime layers and capsules are outside the cell wall
-contain glycocalyx
-contain biofilm

84
Q

What is glycocalyx?

A

a sugar shell

85
Q

What is biofilm?

A

polymer-encased community
-Ex) dental plaque

86
Q

What are flagella?

A

-major form of propulsion
-anchored into cytoplasm and cell wall
-Pathogenic bacteria can have powerful flagella that allow them to penetrate host mucus membranes

87
Q

What are flagellum?

A

-driven by a proton gradient
-have three components

88
Q

What are the three components of flagellum?

A
  1. basal body
  2. hook
  3. filament
89
Q

What does the basal body do?

A

anchors flagella to cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane

90
Q

What does the hook do?

A

connects basal body and filament

91
Q

What is chemotaxis?

A

movement induced by the sensing of certain chemicals or nutrients
-RUN, TUMBLE, RUN

92
Q

Which direction does the nutrient concentration gradient move in for Chemotaxis?

A

lower to higher

93
Q

What are pili?

A

-adherence to specific surfaces
–fimbriae
–pathogenesis
-movement on solid surfaces

94
Q

What does a nucleoid contain?

A

chromosomes
-circular DNA
-supercoiled
-nucleoid-associated proteins

95
Q

What does a plasmid contain?

A

Is smaller than chromosomes
-accessory/non-essential
-antibiotic-resistant gene

96
Q

What are ribosomes?

A

Have two subunits
-50s and 30s = 70s
70s is distinct from the eukaryotic 80s allowing for therapeutic targeting
-phylogenetic identification

97
Q

What are endospores?

A

-dormant cells
INVINCIBLE

98
Q

What types of bacteria contain endospores?

A

bacillus, clostridium

99
Q

What do eukaryotes contain in the cell structure?

A

-organelles
-nucleus
-lack cell wall
-cell wall (chitin, cellulose)
-simple or multicellular
-cytoplasmic membrane

100
Q

What does a eukaryotic cytoplasmic membrane contain?

A

-lipid and protein composition
-cytoplasmic is different on the inside of the cell than on the outside
-higher variety of receptors for functioning as a cohesive unit
-contain sterols for membrane integrity (cholesterol or ergosterol)

101
Q

What are eukaryotes?

A

animals, plants, and fungi

102
Q

What are the different ribosomes present in eukaryotes?

A

60s, 40s, = 80s

103
Q

Do you eukaryotes have a cytoskeleton?

104
Q

What does the nucleus do?

A

-DNA storage, RNA synthesis
-linear DNA
–wound around histones
-MITOSIS
-diploid cells

105
Q

What does the mitochondria do?

A

Synthesizes ATP

106
Q

What does mitochondria and chloroplasts have?

A

interior folds to maximize surface area and thus maximizing ATP generation

107
Q

What do Chloroplast do?

A

Synthesize ATP- photosynthesis
-similar to cyanobacteria

108
Q

What is the emdosymbiotic theory?

A

mitochondria and chloroplasts look and act like prokaryotes. Theory of endosymbiosis suggests they began as symbionts, then became indispensable.

109
Q

What is the ER?

A

-has ribosomes
-protein synthesis

110
Q

What is the Golgi?

A

protein modification and delivery

111
Q

What are lysosomes and peroxysomes?

A

Lysosomes are enzymes
-peroxysomes are a reactive oxygen species

112
Q

How do prokaryotes grow?

A

binary fission

113
Q

What is binary fission?

A

-compete doubling
-exponential growth
-generation time

114
Q

What is generation time?

A

-time it takes for a population to double
-implications for contamination and public health
-growth refers to population not size

115
Q

What is the log phase equation?

A

Nt = N0 x 2n
exponential
-start with 10 cells
-doubles every 20 minutes

116
Q

What does Nt stand for?

A

number of cells at a given time

117
Q

What does N0 stand for?

A

starting number of cells

118
Q

What does n stand for?

A

number of generations

119
Q

What are the stages of microbial growth and the growth curve?

A

-lag phase
-log phase
-stationary phase
-death
-prolonged decline

120
Q

What is the lag phase?

A

-enzyme synthesis
-primary target of drugs
-production of metabolites

121
Q

What is the log phase?

A

-exponential growth

122
Q

What is the stationary phase?

A

-exhaustion of nutrients
-find new nutrient option
-take nutrients from dead cells
CANNIBALS

123
Q

What is the death phase?

A

exponential (slower than growth)

124
Q

What is prolonged decline?

A

-adaptation to adversity
-population survives death

125
Q

What is EPS?

A

Extracellular Polymeric Substances
-many are optimized for life in a biofilm
-infections, water systems, environments

126
Q

What are extremophiles?

A

Dominated by archaea
-temp
-pH
-salt
-water

127
Q

What do salt and sugar react with?

A

Water, making it unavailable to bacteria
OSMOSIS

128
Q

What is a halotolerant?

A

tolerates dissolved NaCl up to 10%

129
Q

What is a halophile?

A

requires NaCl, usually 3% like sea water

130
Q

What is an extreme halophile?

131
Q

What is obligate aerobe?

A

requires O2

132
Q

What is a microaerophile?

A

2-10% O2 but above that O2 is TOXIC

133
Q

What is facultative anaerobe?

A

best with O2 but doesn’t need it

134
Q

What is obligate anaerobes?

A

O2 is TOXIC
TOXIC

135
Q

What is aerotolerant anaerobes?

A

DO NOT USE O2

136
Q

How is oxygen reactive?

A

-Superoxide dismutase
-catalase (sometimes)

137
Q

What is a carbon source?

A

-heterotroph
-autotroph
-nitrogen
-phosphorus, Iron

138
Q

What is a heterotroph?

A

use organic carbon

139
Q

What is a autotroph?

A

use CO2
-carbon fixation
-plants do the same

140
Q

What does nitrogen do?

A

-essential component of amino acids
-used to make ammonia

141
Q

What is phosphorus and iron used for?

A

it is necessary and limited

142
Q

How do phototrophs get energy?

143
Q

How do chemotrophs get energy?

A

chemical compounds

144
Q

What is oxidation?

A

loss of electrons

145
Q

What is reduction?

A

gains electrons

146
Q

What reactions will precursor metabolites be used for?

147
Q

What are the central metabolic pathways?

A
  1. Glycolysis
  2. Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)
  3. Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA) or the Kreb’s cycle
148
Q

What happens during the central metabolic pathways?

A

-ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation
-reducing power in the form of NADH, FADH2, and NADPH (biosynthetic)
-precursor metabolites are produced

149
Q

What is glycolysis?

A

glucose oxidation in order to obtain ATP

150
Q

What is the pentose phosphate pathway?

A

synthesis of pentose and release of the reducing power needed for anabolic reactions

151
Q

What is catabolism?

A

obtaining energy and reducing power from nutrients

152
Q

What is anabolism?

A

production of new cell components, usually through processes that require energy and reducing power obtained from nutrient catabolism

153
Q

What is the Kreb’s cycle?

A

acetyl-CoA oxidation in order to obtain GTP and valuable intermediates

154
Q

What are some key molecules of the central metabolic pathways?

A

-glucose
-many enzymes
-Pyruvate/ Acetyl-CoA
-NAD+/ NADH
NADP+/NADPH
-FAD/FADH2
-ATP

155
Q

How are the reactions of metabolism possible?

A

Through enzymes

156
Q

What are the functions of enzymes?

A

organic catalysts/rapid acting, regulate all cell activities, and are highly selective

157
Q

What are enzymes?

A

proteins that speed up chemical reactions

158
Q

What are cofactors?

A

non-protein assistants (magnesium, copper, zinc, and other trace elements)

159
Q

What are coenzymes?

A

organic cofactors that loosely carry molecules or electrons, FAD, NAD, NADP, and are often derived from vitamins

160
Q

What are some factors that influence enzyme reactions?

A

temperature, pH, enzyme and substrate concentrations, and presence of inhibitors

161
Q

As _______ _________ increases, the temperature also increases.

A

enzyme activity

162
Q

What control enzymatic activity?

A

activators, inhibitors, and feedback inhibition

163
Q

What are activators?

A

some enzymes are activated when a cofactor binds to site other than an active site

164
Q

What are inhibitors?

A
  • a substance that blocks enzyme activity
    -include competititive and noncompetitive inhibitors
165
Q

What is feedback inhibition?

A

controls the action of some enzymes

166
Q

Glycocalyces such as capsules help bacteria adhere to a host cell or an environmental surface. What other external structure of bacterial cells help with adherence?

A

Fimbriae or pili

167
Q

Tetracycline is an antibiotic that targets protein synthesis. Which structure would tetracycline bind to in a bacterial cell?

168
Q

Which of the following statements regarding active transport is false?

A

It powers the diffusion of water across the cell membrane

169
Q

How are bacteria and archaea different from all other cellular microbes?

A

They have no nucleus

170
Q

The ________________________ theory explains why mitochondria and chloroplasts have 70S ribosomes and two membranes and DNA.

A

Endosymbiotic

171
Q

Microbial growth is at its maximum rate during which of the following phases of the microbial growth curve?

172
Q

A(n) ________ is a complex community of various types of microbes that adhere to surfaces.

173
Q

The use of salt and sugar in preserving various types of foods is an application of which of the following concepts?

A

osmotic pressure

174
Q

A bacterial culture that grows only near the surface of a thioglycolate broth is an example of what type of organism?

A

obligate aerobes

175
Q

The reactions involved in producing larger compounds from smaller compounds is called

176
Q

What is meant by substrate-level phosphorylation?

A

Production of ATP by transferring phosphates directly from metabolic products (organic molecules) to ADP

177
Q

The final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration is _________________________.

178
Q

Redox reactions….

A

transfer energy, transfer electrons, involve oxidation and reduction

179
Q

What carbon molecules remain at the end of glycolysis

A

pyruvic acid

Microbiology (15 decks)

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