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Psychology 104 > Chapter 1 and 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 and 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is introspection and who invented it?

A

William Wundt, who is credited with launching psychology as a lab science, used techniques such as introspection; observing something and reflecting on mental experiences.
Example: an introspectionist might ask a participant to look at an apple and report everything they saw.

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2
Q

What is structuralism, who founded it, what were its major problems, and what was its lasting scientific influence?

A

Structuralism was founded by Edward Bradford Titchener (E.B. Titchener). It aimed to use introspection to identify elements/structures of psychological experience, or consciousness, which structuralists believed consisted of sensations, images, and feelings. Structuralism’s major problems were that it did not align with the element of unconscious thought and introspectionists(observers) often disagreed on their reporting. Structuralists were wrong to believe that introspection was enough to complete psychology as a science. Its lasting scientific influence was highlighting the importance of introspection, or systematic observation as an aspect of psychology.

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3
Q

What is functionalism, who founded it, and who heavily influenced it?

A

Functionalism’s goal was to figure out the evolutionary/adaptive purpose of psychological characteristics like thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. It was founded by William James and heavily influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection. James rejected structuralism and instead of asking what consciousnesses is, functionalists asked why we were conscious.

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4
Q

What is behaviourism, who founded it, why is it called black box psychology, and what were its lasting effects on psychology as a science?

A

Behaviourism is the study of human and animal behaviour. It was founded by John B. Watson and it aimed to uncover general laws of learning, which Watson and his followers theorised would explain all behaviours. Behaviourism is called black box psychology because it didn’t aim to look inside the processes of the mind, just at the external factors (rewards and punishments) that motivated behaviour, as though the mind was just a black box that took surrounding factors and produced behaviours. Behaviourism solidified psychology as an objective science.

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5
Q

What is cognitivism, who influenced it?

A

Cognitivism is the study of the processes of the mind. Psychologists disagreed with behaviourism, arguing that thinking isn’t just another behaviour; it affects our behaviour. Cognitive psychologists don’t just focus on the rewards and punishments, they also focus on the person’s interpretation of them. It was influenced by Jean Piaget and Ulric Neisser.

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6
Q

What is psychoanalysis and who founded it?

A

Psychoanalysis focused on unconscious mental processes and urges as causes of behaviour. It was the start of psychotherapy (talk therapy) which we still use today. It was founded by Sigmund Freud.

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7
Q

What is naive realism?

A

The false belief that we see the world exactly as it is. It can lead us to having false beliefs, ex. our memories are always accurate.

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8
Q

What is confirmation bias and belief perseverance and how can you prevent it?

A

Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out evidence that confirms your hypothesis and ignore evidence that contradicts it. Belief perseverance is the tendency to still believe a false claim even after it has been disproven.

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9
Q

What is reciprocal determinism?

A

the tendency of people to mutually influence each other.

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10
Q

What is an emic vs. an etic approach to observation?

A

An emic approach is studying a culture or group with the perspective of someone in the culture, while an etic approach is studying a culture or a group with the perspective of an outsider.

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11
Q

What is psychology?

A

The study of the mind, brain, and behaviour.

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12
Q

What are the rungs of psychology?

A

Social/behavioural (highest), mental/psychological, neurochemical/biological(lowest)

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13
Q

What are the 4 main warning signs of pseudoscience and what do they consist of?

A

ad hoc immunising hypotheses(loophole or excuse defenders of a theory use to keep it from being disproven), lack of self correction(claims are rarely updated, relies on belief perseverance), over reliance on anecdotes(based on subjective impressions), psychobabble

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14
Q

What is pseudoscience?

A

Set of claims that seems scientific but isn’t.

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15
Q

What is patternicity?

A

The tendency to spot patterns in random data when there are none.

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16
Q

What is terror management theory?

A

The theory that the impending thought of death causes us to cling to comforting beliefs with no scientific proof.

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17
Q

What are the 3 major dangers of pseudoscience?

A

opportunity cost(people miss out on opportunities to get effective treatment)), direct harm(causing physical or psychological damage), inability to think scientifically as citizens.

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18
Q

What are the12 logical fallacies?

A

emotional reasoning fallacy, bandwagon fallacy, either-or fallacy, not me fallacy, appeal to authority fallacy, genetic fallacy, argument from antiquity fallacy, argument from adverse consequences fallacy,appeal to ignorance fallacy, naturalistic fallacy, hasty generalisation fallacy, circular reasoning fallacy

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19
Q

Emotional reasoning fallacy

A

Letting your emotions dictate what you choose to believe.

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20
Q

Bandwagon fallacy

A

Assuming something is true because alot of people believe it. ex. astrology

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21
Q

Either-or fallacy

A

Framing a question as though it can be only answered with one of two extreme ways.

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22
Q

Not me fallacy

A

mistake of thinking oneself is immune from error

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23
Q

Appeal to authority fallacy

A

assuming something is right because an authority figure endorses it.

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24
Q

Genetic fallacy

A

Confusing the correctness of a claim with its origins or history

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25
Q

Argument from antiquity fallacy

A

assuming a belief is correct because its been around for a long time.

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26
Q

Argument from adverse consequences fallacy

A

Confusing the correctness of a claim with its potential real-world consequences.

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27
Q

Appeal to ignorance fallacy

A

Assuming a claim is true because nobody has/can disprove it

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28
Q

Naturalistic fallacy

A

Mistake of concluding a moral judgement from a scientific fact

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29
Q

Hasty generalisation fallacy

A

Mistake of coming to a conclusion based on poor or insufficient evidence

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30
Q

Circular reasoning fallacy

A

Mistake of basing the validity of a claim on the same claim reworded slightly

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31
Q

multiply determined

A

produced by many factors ex. human behaviour

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32
Q

What is scientific scepticism?

A

Approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them.

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33
Q

What is critical thinking?

A

Set of skill for evaluating claims

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34
Q

6 principles of scientific thinking?

A

Ruling out rival hypotheses (have important alternate explanations been explored), correlation vs causation (are we sure A equals B? or is there factor C?), falsifiability (is the claim disprovable or is it a metaphysical claim), replicability (can the claims be replicated), extraordinary claims (is the evidence as extraordinary as the claims), Occam’s razor (is there a simpler explanation for the findings) FERCOR

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35
Q

Ruling out Rival Hypotheses

A

Have important alternate explanations been explored?

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36
Q

Correlation vs. causation

A

Are we sure A equals B and there isn’t a factor C that explains the findings?

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37
Q

Falsifiablility

A

Can the claim be scientifically disproven?

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38
Q

Replicability

A

Can the findings be replicated?

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39
Q

Extraordinary claims

A

Is the evidence as extraordinary as the claim?

40
Q

Occam’s razor

A

Is there a simpler explanation for the findings?

41
Q

What are the 8 types of psychologists?

A

“Cancer bitches can surley deliver exceptionally fucking insane orgasms” clinical, counselling, biological, school, developmental, experimental, forensic, industrial-organizational.

42
Q

Clinical psychologist

A

Do assessments, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders
Do research
Work in universities, mental health services or private practice

43
Q

Counselling psychologist

A

Work with people experiencing temporary life problems
work in counselling centres, hospitals, or private practice

44
Q

School psychologist

A

Work with teacher, students and parents to solve problems

45
Q

Developmental psychologist

A

Study how people change as they age
work in research settings

46
Q

Experimental psychologist

A

research and study memory, language, thinking and social behaviours of people

47
Q

Biological psychologist

A

research the physiological reasons for behaviour in humans and animals

48
Q

Forensic psychologist

A

Work with criminals to help diagnose and treat them

49
Q

Industrial - organizational psychologist

A

Work in companies and businesses to maximise worker productivity and satisfaction

50
Q

Explain both sides of the nurture/nature debate

A

One side believes our behaviour is due to genetics, the other thinks its due to our environment and life experiences

51
Q

Explain both sides of the free will/determinism debate

A

One side believes that our behaviours are freely selected, the other side believes they are due to outside factors outside of our control.

52
Q

determinism

A

The belief that our behaviour is caused by outside factors.

53
Q

basic research

A

examines how the mind works

54
Q

applied research

A

examines how we can use basic research to solve real world problems

55
Q

Evolutionary psychology

A

Applies Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human and animal behaviour.

56
Q

System 1 thinking

A

Intuitive unconscious thinking

57
Q

System 2 thinking

A

Analytical conscious thinking

58
Q

heuristics

A

mental shortcuts

59
Q

Internal validity

A

The ability to draw cause and effect inferences

60
Q

External validity

A

The extent to which we can generalise/apply findings apply in the real world

61
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Watching real world behaviour without manipulating anything.
Advantages- high in external validity
Disadvantages- low in internal validity

62
Q

Case study

A

research design that studies a person or group of people over time.
advantages- can provide existence proofs
disadvantages- are anecdotal, don’t allow us to infer causation

63
Q

Self report measures

A

surveys and questionnaires
advantages- can

64
Q

response sets

A

tendency of participants to lie on surveys or questionnaires

65
Q

malingering

A

tendency of people to exaggerate their problems usually in order to get something in exchange (sympathy, money)

66
Q

rating data

A

when someone else answers questions about a person

67
Q

halo effect

A

When one good trait spills over and causes better overall ratings on other characteristics

68
Q

horns effect

A

When one negative trait spills over and causes worse overall ratings on other characteristics

69
Q

illusionary correlation

A

perceived statistical correlation where there is none

70
Q

correlational designs

A

Research design that examines the extent to which 2 variables are correlated, are on a scale of -1 to 1, with negative correlations meaning when one variable changes the other goes in the opposite direction, 0 meaning there is no correlation, and a positive correlation meaning when one variable goes up or down, so does the other.
advantages- can predict behaviour
disadvantages- can’t infer causation

71
Q

Experimental designs

A

Research design characterised by random assignment and the manipulation of an independent variable (measures for a control group)
advantages - high in internal validity (can infer causation)
disadvantages - can be low in external validity

72
Q

Independent variable

A

The manipulated variable

73
Q

Dependent variable

A

The measured variable

74
Q

confounding variable

A

unmeasured variable that may unintentionally affect the outcomes of a study

75
Q

between subjects design

A

when there is a control group and experimental group

76
Q

within subjects design

A

when each subject acts as both the control and experimental group

77
Q

placebo/nocebo effect

A

perceived improvement or harm based on the expectation of improvement or harm

78
Q

Rosenthal effect/experimenter expectancy

A

researcher’s hypothesis lead them to accidentally bias the outcomes of a study

79
Q

double blind experiment

A

neither experimenter or participants know which group is the control and which group is the experimental

80
Q

demand characteristics

A

Participants pick up on cues that allow them to guess the researcher’s hypothesis and act accordingly

81
Q

reliability

A

consistency of measurement

82
Q

validity

A

extent to which a measure assess what it claims to asses.

83
Q

operational definition

A

the working definition of what a researcher is measuring

84
Q

What are the moral obligations of psychologists conducting research on people?

A

they must weigh the potential scientific benefit of their research against potential harm it may cause the participants. They must have informed consent, participant protection from harm/discomfort, and debriefing.

85
Q

How does culture effect ethics?

A

Because the ethical principles of the TCPS(tri-council policy statement) are rooted in Western knowledge and values

86
Q

Describe the pro side of the animal research debate

A

No replacement for it, gives us valuable knowledge, guidelines enforced by CCAC enforce humane treatment of animals

87
Q

Describe the anti side of the animal research debate

A

Possibly low external validity(doesn’t necessarily apply to humans), animal cruelty

88
Q

What are descriptive statistics and what are the 2 types?

A

Descriptive statistics describe data and the 2 types are:
central tendency - central score, where the group clusters. The measures are mean, median, and mode
variability/dispersion - how loosely or tightly bunched values in a dataset are. The measures are range and standard deviation(average amount each data point differs from the mean)

89
Q

What are inferential statistics?

A

The measure of generalisability of the findings, does the statistical significance translate to practical significance?

90
Q

statistical significance

A

when the findings would have occurred by chance less than 5/100 times; p<0.5

91
Q

practical significance

A

real world importance (the generalizability of statistical findings)

92
Q

meta analysis

A

an inferential statistic; analysis of a set of studies that statistically evaluates the strength of patterns

93
Q

How do people misuse statistics to be deceptive?

A

Using misrepresentative measures of central tendency, visual representations that exaggerate effects, and not taking base(how common a trait or characteristic is in a population) rates into account

94
Q

What are some flaws in research design?

A

Not having a complete experiment (random assignment, manipulation of an independent variable, and a control group), placebo/nocebo effect, and experimenter expectancy

95
Q

What are the skills needed for assessing psychological claims in the media?

A

Consider the source, lookout for sharpening(tendency to exaggerate central message of a study) and levelling (tendency to minimise other details of a study), pseudo-symmetry/balanced coverage (faking a scientific controversy by juxtaposing opposing sides to a hypotheses with no scientific evidence backing it to create the appearance that it had credibility)

Psychology 104 (7 decks)

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