Chapter 1 Flashcards
Lifespan Development
is the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change and stability in behavior that occur throughout the life span
physical development
examining the ways in which the body’s makeup – the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink and sleep – helps determine behavior
cognitive development
understanding how growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person’s behavior – examines learning, memory, problem solving and intelligence
personality development
study of stability and change in the characteristics that differentiate one person from another over a lifespan
social development
the way in which individuals’ interactions interactions and relationships with others grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life
Life Span
social constructions – divided into broad age ranges: prenatal (conception to birth), infancy and toddlerhood (birth to 3), preschool (3-6), middle childhood (6 to 12), adolescence (12 to 20), yound adult (20 to 40), middle adult (40 to 60), late adult (60 to death)
social constructions
is a shared notion of reality that is widely accepted but is a function of society and culture at a given time – arbitrary and culturally defined
cohort
a group of people born around the same time and same place
cohort effects
example of history-graded influences, biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment
age-graded influences
are biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group, regardless of when or where they are raised
sociocultural-graded influences
social and cultural factors present at a particular time for a particular individual, depending on such variables as ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership
non-normative life events
specific, atypical events that occur in a particular person’s life at a time when such events do not happen to most people
continuous stage
development is gradual, with achievements at one level building on those of previous levels – continuous change is quantitative
discontinuous change
occurring at distinct stages, each stage brings about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behaviors at earlier stages
critical period
specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences – occur when certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally
sensitive periods
organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments – absence of stimuli during a sensitive period does not always produce irreversible consequences
maturation
predetermined unfolding of genetic information
nature
genetics; refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parent’s
nurture
environment; refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior
theories
broad, organized explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest – provides a framework for understanding the relationships among a seemingly unorganized set of facts or principles
psychodynamic perspective
closely associated with Freud – approach that states behavior is motivated by inner forces,memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control
psychoanalytic theory
the theory proposed by Freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
psychosexual development
according to Freud, a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, is focused on a particular biological function and body part
unconscious
part of the personality which a person is unaware
id
raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth – operates according to the pleasure principle
pleasure principle
goal is maximize satisfaction and reduce tension
ego
part of the personality that is rational and reasonable – acts as a buffer between the external world and primitive id – acts of reality principle
reality principle
instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate the person into society
superego
represents the persons conscience, distinctions between right and wrong – develops around age 5 or 6, learned behaviors
psychosocial development
the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as well as in our knowledge and understand of ourselves as members of society
behavioral perspectives
the approach that suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which an organism responds to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response
operant conditioning
a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences
behavior modification
a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
social-cognitive learning theory
learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model
reinforcement
process by which a behavior is followed by a stimulus that increases the probability that a behavior will be repeated
punishment
the introduction of an unpleasant of painful stimulus or the removal of desirable stimulus, will decrease the likeliness a behavior will be repeated
schemes
organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions
assimilation
process in which people understand a new experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and existing ways of thinking
accommodation
refers to changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events
cognitive perspective
the approach that focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand and think about the world
information processing approaches
models that seek to identify the way individuals take in, use and store information
cognitive neuroscience approaches
approaches that examine cognitive development through the lens of brain processes
humanistic perspective
the theory that contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior
free will
ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives instead of relying on societal standards
contextual perspective
theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds
bioecological approach
the perspective suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence behaviors
self-actualization
states of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential
microsystem
is the everyday, immediate environment of children’s daily lives
mesosystem
connects the various aspects of the microsytem
exosystem
societal institutions such a local government, community, schools, places of worship – effect how microsystem and mesosystem operate
macrosystem
represents larger cultural influences on an individual, including society in general
chronosystem
involves the way the passage of time – including historical events
collectivism
notion that the well-being of the group is more important that the individual
sociocultural theory
emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of culture
evolutionary perspective
theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
ethology
examines ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior
behavioral genetics
studies the effects of hereditary of behavior
scientific method
the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the collection of data
hypothesis
a prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested
correlational research
research that seeks to identify whether as association or relationship between two factors exist
experimental research
research designed to discover causal relationships between various factors
correlation coefficient
the strength and direction of a relationship between two factors is represented by this mathematical score
naturalistic observation
a type of correlational study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation
ethnography
goal is to understand a culture’s values and attitudes through careful, extended examination
case studies
involve extensive, in depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals
survey research
a type of study in which a group of people chosen to represent some larger population are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior or thinking on a given topic
experiment
a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter , devices two different experiences for subjects or participants
psychophysiological methods
approaches that focus on relationship between physiological processes and behavior
EEG – electroencephalogram
uses electrodes placed on the skull to record electrical activity in brain
CAT scan
constructs an image of the brain by combining thousands of individual x-rays taken at slightly different angles
MRI
provides detailed 3D views – offers most detailed views
independent variable
variable that researches manipulate in an experiment
dependent variable
variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation
sample
group of participants chosen for experiment
field study
a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting
laboratory study
a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant
theoretical research
research designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge
applied research
research meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems
