Chapter 1 Flashcards
What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?
Anatomy studies body structure, physiology is the functional relevance of the structures
What is Gross Anatomy?
Structure visible to the naked eye either by surface observation or dissection
What is histology?
Taking tissue specimens, thinly slicing, staining, and observing them under a microscope.
What is Histopathology?
The microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease
What is the difference between SURFACE, SYSTEMIC and REGIONAL anatomy?
Surface –> External structure; important in conducting a physical exam
Systemic –> Studying one organ system at a time
Regional –> Study of multiple organ systems at the same time in a given region of the body. Method typically taught in medical schools
What is functional morphology?
Functional reason behind organ structure
What is comparative anatomy?
Study of more than 1 species; Studies generalizations and evolutionary trends; Studies structure-function relationship;
What is the difference between inspection and dissection?
Inspection is the simplest method of examining the body, done during a physical examination. Dissection is the cutting and seperation of tissues to reveal their relationships, it is crucial for accurately mapping the human body
What does anatomy mean?
“Cutting apart”
What is a cadaver?
Dead human body
Name 4 methods of clinical examination
1) PALPATION –> Feeling structures with fingertips (i.e. taking a pulse)
2) Auscultation –> Listening to the natural sounds made by the body (heart and lung sounds)
3) Percussion –> Tapping on the body and listening to the sound for signs of abnormalities (pockets of fluid and air)
4) Medical Imaging –> Includes methods of viewing the inside of the body without surgery (Radiology)
What is the difference between non-invasive and invasive imaging techniques?
Non-Invasive techniques involve no penetration of the skin or body orifices. Invasive may involve inserting ultrasound probes into body orifices or injecting substances into the blood stream
What is Radiography?
Process of photographing internal structures with X-rays, a form of high-energy radiation. X-rays are absorbed by dense tissues such as bone, teeth, and tumors, which produce a lighter image than soft tissues. Commonly used in Dentistry, mammography, diagnosis of fractures, and examination of the digestive, respiratory and urinary tract. Some disadvantages are that images of overlapping organs can be confusing, slight differences in tissue density are not detected, and mutations and cancer
What is a CT Scan?
- Computed Tomography scan
- More sophisticated application of X-rays
- Patient is moved through a ring-shaped machine that emits low-intensity x-rays on one side and receives them with a detector on the opposite side.
- Computer analyzes signals from the detector and produces an image of a slice of the body.
- Has the advantage of imaging thin sections of the body so there is little organ overlap and the image is much sharper than a conventional X-ray.
- Useful for identifying tumors, aneurysms, cerebral hemorrhages, kidney stones, and other abnormalities.
What is an MRI?
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging
- Better than CT for visualizing soft tissues – Distinguishing white from gray matter
- Patient lies within a tunnel surrounded by a large electromagnet.
- An image is generated by the response of tissues to the magnetic field and radio waves
What is a fMRI
- Functional MRI
- Visualizes moment-by-moment changes in tissue function (Shifting patterns of activity in the brain)
- Can identify parts of brain performing tasks (sensory, mental and motor)
What is a PET Scan?
- Positron Emission Tomography scan
- Used to assess the metabolic state of a tissue and to distinguish which tissues are most active.
- Uses an injection of radioactively labeled glucose to highlight which tissues are most actively consuming energy at the moment of the scan
- In cardiology can show extent of damaged heart tissue.
- Is an example of “NUCLEAR MEDICINE” – the use of radioisotopes to treat disease or to form diagnostic images of the body
What is Sonography?
- Uses handheld device placed firmly against the skin.
- emits high-frequency ultrasound (which wont hurt you) and receives signals reflected back from internal organs.
- Equipment is relatively inexpensive and portable
- Does not produce a sharp image.
- ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY is the sonographic examination of the beating heart.
What are some sub-disciplines of Physiology?
Neurophysiology, endocrinology, pathophysiology
What are the 9 Qualities of Living Things
1) Organization
2) Cells
3) Metabolism –> Sum of all internal chemical changes in organism; living things take in molecules from the environment and chemically change them into molecules that form their own structures, control their physiology, or provide energy.
4) Growth
5) Development –> Change in form/function; includes growth and differentiation (the transformation of cells and tissues with no specialized function to ones that are committed to a particular task (ex. the unspecialized tissue “Mesoderm” differentiates into muscle, bone, cartilage, blood, and others.)
6) Excitability –> Ability of organisms to sense and react to stimuli. We would die very quickly w/o this; occurs at every level.
7) Homeostasis –> Ability to maintain internal stability
8) Reproduction –> of the 11 systems, this is one we can live w/o on an individual level but not as a species.
9) Evolution
What are examples of Homeostasis?
1) Body temperature maintained within range
2) Blood pressure and body weight
3) Electrolyte Balance and pH Levels
What does the loss of homeostatic control tend to cause?
Illness or death
What is Pathophysiology?
Study of unstable conditions that result when our homeostatic controls go wonky.
Describe Negative Feedback
- This is the good one
- Maintains Homeostasis; a process in which body senses a change and activates mechanisms that reverse it.
- It does not produce absolute constancy in the body, but maintains physiological values within a narrow range of a certain set point (98.6).
- Maintains dynamic equilibrium
- Key mechanism for maintaing health.
What is a terms for feedback mechanisms?
Feedback loops since they alter the original changes that triggered them.
What is Vasodilatation?
Heat losing mechanism which involves the widening of blood vessels. Warm blood flowing closer to body surface. Loses heat to surrounding air. If this is not enough to return your temperature to normal, sweating occurs
What is vasoconstriction?
A heat-conserving mechanism when its cold outside. Involves the narrowing of the blood vessels in the skin, which serves to retain warm blood deeper in your body and reduce heat loss. If this is not enough shivering follows.
What are the 3 components for feedback loops?
1) receptor –> Gets the info and notices something is off; senses change in the body. (e.g. temperature receptors in skin)
2) Integrating (Control) Center –> Will figure out what has been done; processes the information, relates it to other available info and makes a decision as to an appropriate response.
3) Effectors –> Supposed to fix the problem. Restore homeostasis
Describe the Positive Feedback
- Self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to even greater change in the same direction.
- Sometimes a normal way at producing rapid change, but more often a harmful purpose (i.e. high fever)
- Example is Childbirth
Describe the levels of Human Structure
1) Organism –> Single complete individual
2) Organ System
3) Organ
4) Tissue –> Mass of similar cells and cell products; Forms a discrete region of an organ; Body is composed of 4 types: Epithelial, Connective, Nervous, and Muscular.
5) Cells –> Smallest units which carry out all functions of life.
6) Organelles –> Carry out cells individual functions
7) Molecules
8) Atoms
What are the 2 major body Regions?
Axial –> Central axis of the body; Everything but the limbs; Head, neck, and trunk (The Trunk is further divided by the thoracic region above the diaphragm and the Abdominal and pelvic regions below)
Appendicular Region –> Upper Limbs (Arm and forearm, includes wrist, hand and fingers) and Lower Limbs (Includes Thigh and Leg, ankle, foot and toes.
What are the 9 Regions of the abdominopelvic Region?
1) Midclavicular Line –> Vertical Lines which pass through the midpoint of the clavicle.
2) Subcostal Lines –> Upper horizontal lines. Connect inferior borders of lowest costal cartilages
3) Intertubercular Lines –> Lower horizontal lines which pass from left to right between the tubercules of the pelvis.
4) Hypochondriac Region
5) Lumbar Region
6) Inguinal Region
7) Epigastric Region
8) Umbilical Region
9) Hypogastric Region (pubic) regions
What is a “Segment” of a limb?
Region between one joint and the next (e.g. the arm is the segment between the shoulder and elbow joints and the forearm is the segment between the elbow and wrist joints.
What are body cavities?
- Contain Internal organs (Viscera)
- Lined by thin Serous Membrane (Secrete lubricating film)
What is the cranial cavity?
- Enclosed by Skull
- Contains brain
What is the vertebral Canal?
- Continuous with cranial cavity
- Space that passes down vertebral column
What are the menages?
- Line both cavities
- Protect nervous tissue from hard bone
What is the Coelum?
- Internal Space in early human embryo
- Becomes divided by muscular sheet, the diaphragm
What are the 2 spaces that the Coelum is divided into?
1) Future Thoraic cavity
2) Future Abdominiopelvic Cavity
The Thoraic Cavity is divided into right, left and median portions by a partition called a ________?
Mediastinum; occupied by the esophagus and trachea, thymus gland, and the theart and major blood vessels connected to it.
What is the Pericardium?
two-layered serous membrane surrounding heart
What is the Pleura?
two-layered serous membrane enclosing lungs
The Abdominopelvic Cavity can be subdivided into the _____ and ______?
Abdominal cavity (contains most of the digestive organs. Contains spleen, kidneys and ureters) and pelvic cavity (lowermost part of the large intestine. Contains bladder, urethra, and reproductive organs)
What is Peritoneum?
2-layered serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity
What is perietal peritoneum?
The outer layer, lining the abdominal wall
What is visceral peritoneum?
Another layer of peritoneum, which suspends certain abdominal viscera from the body wall and covering their outer surfaces.
What is the peritoneal cavity?
Space between parietal and visceral peritoneum . lubricated by fluid
What is retroperitoneal?
Organ which lie against the posterior wall. Covered by peritoneum only on side facing cavity. (E.g., kidneys, aorta, and inferior vena cava, duodenum, and pancreas)
What are Intraperitoneal organs?
- Encircled by peritoneum
- Suspended from posterior body wall by mesenteries
- E.g., loops of small intestines
Describe the Integumentary System
- Principal Organs: Skin, hair, nails, cutaneous glands.
- Principal functions: Protection, Water retention, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, nonverbal communication
Describe the skeletal system
- Principal Organs: Bones, Cartilages, and ligaments
- Principal Functions: support, movement,
protective enclosure of viscera,
blood formation, mineral storage,
electrolyte and acid–base balance
Describe the muscular system
Principal Organs: Skeletal Muscles
Principal Functions: movement, stability, communication, control of body openings, and
heat production
Describe the Lymphatic System
Principal Organs: lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels
thymus, spleen, tonsils
Principal Functions: recovery of excess tissue fluid, detection of pathogens, production of immune cells, defense against disease
Describe the Respiratory System
Principal Organs: nose, pharynx, larynx
trachea, bronchi, lungs
Principal Functions: absorption of oxygen
discharge of carbon dioxide
acid–base balance
speech
Describe the Urinary System
Principal Organs: kidneys, ureters
urinary bladder, urethra
Principal Functions: elimination of wastes,
regulation of blood volume and pressure,
stimulation of red blood cell formation,
control of fluid, electrolyte, acid–base balance, and
detoxification
Describe the Nervous System
Principal Organs: Brain, Spinal Cord, nerves, ganglia
Principal Functions: rapid internal communication,
coordination, and motor control
sensation
Describe the Endocrine System
Principal Organs: pituitary gland, pineal gland
thyroid gland, parathyroid glands
thymus, adrenal glands
pancreas, testes, ovaries
Principal Functions: hormone production and
internal chemical communication and coordination
Describe Circulatory System
Principal Organs: Heart, blood and vessels
Principal Functions: distribution of nutrients, oxygen, and wastes
distribution of hormones, electrolytes, heat
distribution of immune cells, antibodies
fluid, electrolyte, and acid–base balance
Describe the Digestive System
Principal Organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands
esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines
liver, gallbladder, pancreas
Principal Functions: nutrient breakdown and absorption
metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals
synthesis of plasma proteins
disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones
cleansing of blood
Describe the Male Reproductive system
Principal Organs: testes, epididymides, spermatic ducts
seminal vesicles, prostate gland
bulbourethral glands, penis
Principal Functions: production and delivery of sperm
secretion of sex hormones
Describe the Female Reproductive system
Principal Organs: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus
vagina, mammary glands
Principal Functions: production of eggs
site of fertilization and fetal development
fetal nourishment, birth, lactation
secretion of sex hormones
