Chap-7 Flashcards
Modal model of memory?
Sensory memory
* large capacity
* same modality
* very fast decay
STM
* limited capacity
* maintenance rehearsal
* seconds decay
LTM
* unlimited capacity
* semantic coding
* modest decay, can retrieve info
What is Long Term Memory?
ong term memory (LTM) = vast library of lasting memories, still not sure the extent of the capacity.
o rehearsal is part of encoding (STM à LTM)
o some theories suggest unlimited capacity, unlimited duration
Serial Position Curve?
Primacy Effect : recall advantage of first items Recency Effect: recall advantage of last items.
Ø Both are related to STM memory and LTM memory.
Ø Primary words tend to go to LTM by rehearsal and the last words are in the STM.
when the primacy and recency effect is the most effective?
Primacy Effect = better memory for first few items
o always happens;
o due to rehearsal -> LTM
* Recency Effect = better memory for last few items
o only happens if tested immediately
o due to limited duration of STM (i.e. seconds delay)
LTM Processes?
Encoding (input): translating info into neural code that our brain can understand; can be visual, phonological, semantic
Storage (storage): retaining info over some period of time
Retrieval (output): pulling info out of storage
types of rehearsal?
- Maintenance Rehearsal = repeat something over and over; typically used for maintaining information in STM
o not very effective for transfer to LTM- Elaborative Rehearsal = elaborate on info or relate it to something known; focuses on meaning of material.
a. Comparing in our mind can help us to conceptualize the info better.
o much more effective for transferring to LTM
- Elaborative Rehearsal = elaborate on info or relate it to something known; focuses on meaning of material.
How do we maximize the probability that things will be better remembered?
Spacing Effect
Level of Processing
Impact of Schemas
Other Strategies
Spacing Effect?
- Encoding Phase
o some facts on each lesson were quizzed three times throughout each chapter (distributed), while other facts were not quizzed (single) - Testing Phase
o memory recall was assessed on tests at i) end of chapters, ii) end of the semester, and iii) end of the year - Results: distributed testing improved memory retrieval. Repetitive questions that were tested again and again improved memory performance.
Benefit of distributed/spaced encoding on memory retrieval
?
o maximizing the number of distinct, separate memory of items results in better recall of those items.
o longer intervals between each encoding/studying phase are linked to better memory performance at recall.
- How do we maximize the probability that things will be better remembered?
Three Perspectives on Levels of Processing
1. Depths of Processing
2. Transfer Appropriate
Processing
Encoding
Specificity
- Depth of Processing?
- Craik & Lockhart’s theory: deeper processing is better encoding
- Shallow Processing = focus more on physical features; involves little
attention to meaning
o happens somewhat automatically
o ~ maintenance rehearsal (mere repetition) - Deep Processing = focus more on meaning; relate it to something else that you know; requires conscious effort
o requires conscious effort
o ~ elaborative rehearsal (semantic processing)
The deeper processing we engage, the better the performance get.
- Craik & Tulving’s task (1975)?
Three groups of subjects given list of words; each group asked to answer a different question about each word on list
o G1 – Is the word written in uppercase or lowercase letters? Shallow processing
o G2 – does the word rhyme with ______ ? Still shallow but a bit deeper than G1
o G3 – given a new fill-in-the-blank sentence for each word, and asked if the word would make sense in that sentence. Deep processing.
* Then, all were given a surprise recall task.
- Results: deeper processing during encoding leads to better recall.
Ø The deeper processing the better the performance
Transfer Appropriate Processing?
Ho: If testing requires analysis of information the same way it was encoded, we can recall better.
Ø If testing only depending of the match
Ø Depth processing: semantic information is the most
Ø Transfer appropriate:
- Encoding phase?
read 60 sentences (30 normal font, 30 inverted font)
* Testing phase (7 days later): read 120 sentences (60 old, 60 new)
- Results: conditions that led to the best memory recall performance were ones that showed the same font at encoding and testing phases.
Ø It is the conditions that the processing between the coding and testing was the same resulted to the best memory performance.
- Tulving’s Encoding Specificity Theory?
match between the cue used at encoding and testing enhances memory performance
- Task: participants read pairs of words, and asked to remember the capitalized words at Testing Phase
- Results: the greater overlap between cues at encoding and test phases, the better the memory performance
Encoding: (eg) strawberry – JAM
Testing:
* strawberry – JAM 73% recognized
* raspberry – JAM 43% recognized
* traffic – JAM 29% recognized
Ø Strawberry give the overlap between the context of the coding and the testing the greater the performance.
- Mood-Dependent Memory (aka Mood-Congruent Memory)?
more likely to remember the information if being encoded in a certain mood, the retrieval of the information is better if it be recalled in the same mood.
* Task
* 1. Induced in positive or negative mood.
* 2. Participants generated an autobiographical memory.
* 3. Induced in same, different, or neutral mood.
* 4. Participants asked to recall previously generated events.
- Mood-Dependent Memory/ state dependent learning?
- Results: participants had better recall if in the same mood as generation
of memories; participants performed worst if in different mood - Implications: during episodes of depression, memories retrieved will likely
match their mood/ situation/ location.
Three Perspectives on Levels of Processing?
Depths of Processing:
The deeper the level of processing, the more likely an item will be remembered.
Transfer Appropriate: An overlap between the processing required by study phase and memory test improves memory performance Processing.
Encoding Specificity: A match between the cue used at encoding and testing enhances memory performance.
How do we maximize the probability that things will be better remembered?
Impact of Schemas
Impact of Expertise
Impact of Organizing Information
Impact of Perspectives
Impact of Schemas?
- during encoding, we activate a schema (impacts which aspects of the experience we encode)
- schemas can bias what information is encoded.
o some information are more readily integrated into schema, while other seemingly irrelevant information are lost - new experience gets integrated into schema that fits although in might be inaccurate memory.
Impact of Expertise?
- Recall: experts have more organized knowledge structures, and are better at chunking information
EX: runners have a much better memory with the track time and waitress have much better memory of the order.
Ø Well established schemas are helpful in doing the task.
Ø Getting the schema work of the image is given prior to the information/ encoding process.
Impact of Organizing Information?
Ø We recall more if we have schemas in mind prior to encoding.
Schemas enhance memory only if presented before encoding.
Impact of Perspectives?
- Task: participants were first asked to read a story from either perspective.
Our memory depends on our perceptive. Me always noting and remembering the sanitary wears.
Other Strategies of effective memory encoding?
- Self-reference effect: relating things to yourself improves memory for that information
o “self” is a knowledge structure rich in associations.
Self-relevant conditions results in the best memory performance. - Compared memory performance across four conditions of encoding
o Group 1: capitalized or not?
o Group 2: rhymes with _____?
o Group 3: meaning of word?
o Group 4: describes them?
o *Group 4 performed best - Generation effect: generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, improves memory for that information
- Compared memory performance across two conditions
o Group 1: studied a list of related word pairs (king-crown, lamp-shade)
o Group 2: filled in the blank of second word related to the first word (king-cr___)
paired associated learning/ priming?
a learning task in which participants are first presented with a list of words, then one word for each pair is presented and the task is to recall the other word.
retrieval practice effect?
when practicing memory retrieval increase elaboration, which increase performance in memory tasks.
consolidation?
the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.
synaptic consolidation vs system consolidation?
synaptic consolidation: structural change at synapses (over mins to hours) system consolidation: gradual reorganization of neural circuits within the brain (within months/ years)
long term potentiation?
enhancing firing of neurons after repeated stimulation: as a result of structural changes at the synapse causes strengthening of synaptic transmission.
standard model of consolidation?
memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation but that once consolidation is complete, retrieval no longer depends on the hippocampus.
testing effect?
the enhanced performance due to retrieval practice
reactivation?
a process that occurs during memory consolidation, in which the hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory During reactivation, activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex. the activity results in the formation of connections between the cortical areas.
retrograde amnesia?
loss of memory that occurred before the injury
graded amnesia?
amnesia is the most severe for the events that just occurred before the injury and becomes less severe for earlier, more remote events.
anterograde amnesia?
amnesia for the event occurred after injury (inability to form new memory).
multiple trace model of consolidation?
early in consolidation, the hippocampus communicate with cortical area and remains active communicator even after memory formation between the cortical.
reconsolidation?
when memory is retrieved, it becomes fragile (like it was originally formed) and it need to be consolidated again.
temporal context model?
fluency effect?
the misconception that rereading the material will lead to consolidation of the context, not true! because of the familiarity effect.
