ch8 Flashcards
INTRODUCTION
-Ibn Kaldun: born into family of arabs who died when he was young, exploited personal relationships to secure an administrative position at court and thus began
a career as an itinerant statesman. Time and time again, Ibn Khaldun landed in prison for his
role in conspiracies against various ruling dynasties, only to be released by their heirs. Envoys
and grandees recognized his remarkable intelligence and the value of his council. His reputation
preceded him, and many dignitaries openly entreated him to join their court. Serving various
dynasties, Ibn Khaldun held many important offices, like diplomat, court advisor, and prime
minister. But he eventually grew weary of the hazards of palace intrigue and sought instead a
more reclusive lifestyle.Ibn Khaldun retired to the safety of a Berber tribe in Algeria, where he composed al-Muqad-dimah, or Prolegomenon, an outstanding work of sociology and historiography. he theorized in al-Muaqddimah that tribal ‘asabiyah, roughly translated as “social soli-darity,” is often accompanied by a novel religious ideology that helps a previously marginalized
group of people, usually from the desert, rise up and conquer the city folk. Once ensconced in
power, these desert peoples evolved into a grand civilization, but ‘asabiyah contained within it
destructive elements that could precipitate their collapse. Known for this Cyclical Theory of
History, Ibn Khaldun posited that, seduced by the wiles of urban culture, the dominant group
would over time become soft and enter into a period of decay, until a new group of desert peoples
conquered them, when the process would begin anew. This theory applies to the development of
Islamic history discussed throughout this chapter.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE EAST
-middle east straddles Asia, Africa. Europe
-promoted cultural
diffusion by facilitating the spread of peoples,
ideas, and goods along overland and maritime
trade routes.
-aridity, climate has influenced settle-
ment patterns. Larger settlements are found in
river valleys and well-watered areas along the
littoral. In these areas, we see the development
and spread of productive agriculture.
RISE OF ISLAM
-Legend traces the Arabs back to Isma‘il, the son of Abraham and his Egyptian maid, Haga, a
link that would later help to legitimize Islam by connecting it to the Hebrew tradition. In reality,
Arabs inhabited the pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula and shared socio-linguistic commonalities
with such other Semitic-speaking peoples in the area as the Hebrews, Assyrians, Arameans, and
even the Amhara of Ethiopia. Most
-practiced terraced agriculture and
herded ruminants in a relatively small area.
-up against the
littoral of the Red Sea, was the Hijaz, a prominent cultural and economic region. Situated in this
remote fastness was the dusty city of Mecca, the holiest place in the peninsula and the location of the Ka‘ba, or “cube,” which
contained many of the traditional
Arabian religious images, including
many Christian icons.
-So important
was the Ka‘ba to the religion of poly-
theistic tribes of Arabia that they
negotiated a truce lasting one month
every year that allowed for safe pil-
grimage to the shrine.
-distinguished by
irrigated agriculture that supported
fruit trees and essential grains. Local
traders exported a range of Hijazi
agricultural products to Syria in
the north in return for imperative
imports like textiles and olive oil so
the region benefited from robust
trade.
-Regional commerce depended
on the security of trade, and piracy on the Red Sea threatened to disrupt business. Under these
conditions, merchants diverted their trade overland. Many goods journeyed up the Red Sea Rift
from Yemen on their way to the eastern Mediterranean. Caravans of camels carried these goods,
as well as Hijazi exports, to the Levant.
Most of the caravans stopped in
Mecca, the halfway point up the spine
of the peninsula, thus their commerce
brought much needed wealth and tax
revenue to the city.
-The Arabs first domesticated the
camel,So important were these beasts of burden that the tribes that
controlled the camels controlled the trade. And the Quraysh Tribe of Mecca commanded many of the camels in the Hijaz region; therefore, they commanded much of the trade.
-Life in the Arabian Peninsula centered around the tribe, which usually consisted of a group of
relatives who claimed a shared ancestry. Tribal traditions found meaning in the poetic concept of
muruwah, which represented the notion of the ideal tribal man. This uniquely Arabian brand of
chivalry focused on bravery, patience, persistence in revenge, generosity, hospitality, and protection
of the poor and weak.
-In the absence of formal government, tribes offered physical security to its
individual members. Tribes mitigated violence and theft through the shared understanding that
retribution for such acts would follow swiftly.
-tribes competed over scarce resources
-muhammad born into a tribe
-These early privations
influenced Muhammad’s later desire to take care of those who could not care for themselves.
-During this period, he cultivated a reputation of an empathetic and
honest man, one who earned the respect of many Meccans. His upright character soon attracted
the attention of a wealthy merchant known as Khadija who hired Muhammad to manage her
caravans. Once Muhammad proved his reliability, Khadija, who was fifteen years older than
Muhammad, proposed to him, and they married. This marriage afforded Muhammad a financial
security that allowed him to begin meditating on religion in the abstract.
-During this period, he cultivated a reputation of an empathetic and
honest man, one who earned the respect of many Meccans. His upright character soon attracted
the attention of a wealthy merchant known as Khadija who hired Muhammad to manage her
caravans. Once Muhammad proved his reliability, Khadija, who was fifteen years older than
Muhammad, proposed to him, and they married. This marriage afforded Muhammad a financial
security that allowed him to begin meditating on religion in the abstract.
The Religion of Islam
-As a religion of the Abrahamic faith, Islam holds much in common with Judaism and
Christianity. Islam grew out of the Judeo-Christian tradition, a link which helped to legitimize
the new religion.
-In fact, Muslims believe in the same God, or Allah in Arabic, as the Jewish and
Christian God.
-Although Muslims trust that the People of the Book had received the word of God, they believe that it had become
distorted over time, so God sent the
Angel Gabriel to deliver His word to
Muhammad, the Seal of the Prophets,
or Khatam an-Nabiyyin, for Muslims
believe that he represented God’s
final word to man.
-God, they believe that it had become
distorted over time, so God sent the
Angel Gabriel to deliver His word to
Muhammad, the Seal of the Prophets,
or Khatam an-Nabiyyin, for Muslims
believe that he represented God’s
final word to man.
-The Prophet’s followers memorized the revelations and ul-
timately recorded them in a book
called the Quran. Together with the
Quran, the Hadith, traditions of Muhammad used to illustrate a concept, and the Sunna, the
teachings of the Prophet not found in the Quran, helped guide and inform Muslims on proper
Behavior. -submitting to God’s will very important
-the Five
Pillars of Islam are essential, oblig-
atory actions that serve as the foun-
dation of the faith.
1:known as the witness, or shahada,
is a profession of faith, in which
believers declare that “There is no
God but God, and Muhammad is
His messenger.”
2:Prayer, also called
salat,(5 times a day)
3:The third pillar is almsgiving, or zakat in Arabic. Islam requires Muslims to contribute
a proportion of their wealth to the upkeep of the Islamic community. This proportion, or tithe,
accorded with the size of one’s wealth; therefore, the rich should expect to contribute more than
the poor.
4:The third pillar is almsgiving, or zakat in Arabic. Islam requires Muslims to contribute
a proportion of their wealth to the upkeep of the Islamic community. This proportion, or tithe,
accorded with the size of one’s wealth; therefore, the rich should expect to contribute more than
the poor.
5:The fifth and final pillar of Islam is pilgrimage, or hajj. Islam expects
all able-bodied Muslims to make a journey to Mecca at least once in their lifetime.
**All five pillars
combine to unite the Islamic community.
THE EXPANSION OF ISLAM
-monotheism
-Most of his early converts belonged to groups of people who had failed to achieve any
significant social mobility, which, of course, included many of the poor.
-Islam served as a binding
force, replacing tribal solidarity, or ‘asabiyah.
-Muhammid challenged the Umayyad Clan’s leadership of society.
-The most
powerful branch of the Quraysh Tribe, the Umayyads had been enriching themselves from the
lucrative caravan trade while, at the same time, ignoring the privations of the needy.
-also spoke out against the traditional pagan gods
-the muslims threatened to disrupt the equalibrium
-change. Tensions grew,
and conflict spilled into the streets of Mecca, dragging the two respective camps into the fray.
The more that Muhammad’s followers grew in number, the more opposition they encountered
from the Umayyad Clan.
-To avoid this conflict, some Muslims fled to the Kingdom of Aksum,
located in Ethiopia, at this stage in the early history of Islam, where they received protection from
Muhammad’s enemies under the Christian King Armah. Indeed, the first Muslims went by the
name of muhajirun, meaning “emigrants,” for they would soon be forced to leave Mecca under
pain of severe Umayyad persecution.
-death of Muhammad’s loved ones led to him being alone and vulnerable with being cut off from tribal leadership
-conflict in Yathrib during this time
-leaders impressed by Muhammad and got him as a mediator
-migrated to medina with intense opposition, called hijra (first year of Islam calendar)
-inhabitants rapidly converted
-These new Muslims came to be identified as the ansar, meaning “helpers.” Together
with the muhajirun, the ansar helped the Prophet institutionalize the religion of Islam and develop
an umma, or community of believers, that would dominate the social and political life of Medina.
-Mahammad took many roles:
1 prophet of islam
2 political leader of umma
3 judicial leader, quran basis of law
4. Legislater working with majlis (council of elders) to enact laws (no separation of church and state)
5. Military leader, statehood would prevail for muslims
-battle of badr, muslims defeating meccan caravan based on what they believed was revelation
-more battles between muslims and meccans
-muslims kept winning, umayyads realized they wouldnt win the fight so sent meccans to get peace
-The resulting Treaty of Hudaybiyyah symbolized their desire to extricate
themselves from a losing situation, The resulting Treaty
of Hudaybiyyah symbolized their desire to extricate
themselves from a losing situation,
-tribes sending delegations to forge
alliances with the Prophet since they were winners. By the time
that Muhammad passed away, most
of Arabia had converted to Islam.
The religion provided the Muslims of
the peninsula with a new ‘asabiyah,
or social solidarity, endowing the
movement with a unity of purpose.
-prophet muhammad died so they had to make sharia law which was legal system with islamic principles
THE RASHIDUN CALIPHS
-muhammad didnt have successor,In fact, the umma divided into three groups, with each willing to appoint their own successor to the Prophet.
-umar sugested adu bakr, muhammads closest friend
-The election of Abu Bakr (632 – 634) brought much-needed stability and an almost democratic
form of government to Islam. As caliph, Abu Bakr held together the converts to Islam by deploying
the forces at his disposal, thus cementing his authority among the Arabian tribes. He prevented
any rebellious Muslim tribes from reverting to the worship of their traditional tribal gods, as they
were wont to do, died after 2 years
-umar next caliph, wanted to subdue raiding nomads, united muslim community against unbelievers and exapnd God’s dominion
-‘Umar understood the importance of plunder for the nascent
caliphate. Troops received four-fifths of the loot from conquest; the remainder of the revenue went
to him to be dispersed amongst the neediest members in the Islamic community.
-muslims battling byzantine, In both instances,
the Byzantines relied on their
slow, heavy cavalry, whereas
the Arabs capitalized on their
light armor and their supe-
rior mobility. The Muslims
realized that they could not
just charge the East Roman
lines; they showed their tac-
tical superiority by flanking
the Byzantines and executing
a successful rearguard ac-
tion instead. These victories
opened up greater Syria to
Muslim conquest.
-lots of battles and success
-Clearly outnumbered Muslim armies thus successfully defeated two long-standing empires
in the span of just a few decades. Several explanations help us understand the rapid expansion of
Islam during this period. One concept, termed the vacuum theory, posits that the Byzantine and
Persian empires had been severely weakened from near-continuous fighting, dating back decades
prior to the rise of Islam, so they both suffered from the fatigue of war. Islam, therefore, occupied
the vacuum of political power resulting from the collapse of these two exhausted empires.
-The success of Muslim military strategy offers a second explanation. While Byzantine forces
adopted a defensive stance on the battlefield, the Arabs employed more aggressive tactics, making
use of their mobile light cavalry against their enemies’ heavily armored armies. Once victorious,
the Arabs populated garrison cities on the frontier, called amsar, with Muslims.
These military
settlements provided security, served as logistical loci, and discouraged Muslim troops from
mingling with the locals. The caliphs thereby prevented their warriors being assimilated into the
communities of the conquered while also preventing soldiers from disturbing the peace.
Could expand and consoladate hold over frontier
-religion tied into expansion of islam:
-Fearing that internal tribal
divisions threatened the early Islamic state, ‘Umar united the Muslims through their common
Islamic theology and faced them against a common enemy. Dedicated to the expansion of Islam,
Muslims used the concept of jihad as a way to unify the umma, or Islamic community, against a
foreign foe. Faith motivated the troops,
-simple economics also facor:
-Muslim rulers applied the jizya, an annual tax levied on non-Muslims, to newly-conquered
lands. The money derived from conquest functioned as a driving force in the growth of the
caliphate.
-soldiers would earn money and divide spoils for their service, umar gave them salaries for how long they served
-muslims also exploited internal divisions of other targeted societes:
-collaborated with the minorities. Hastening byzantine collapse
-division within islam with ali (closely related to Muhammad, good condadite) vs Uthman getting position
-shia and sunni created
shi’a:a group of ‘Alids who believed that ‘Ali
should inherit the mantle of Islam and referred to traditions suggesting that Muhammad had pro-
claimed to the faithful that ‘Ali should be his successor.
-sunni:the Umayyads contended that the method of
appointing successors should be by consensus, as was done with the first caliphs.
-umar had benefited soldiers a lot and benefited lesser tribes
-uthman was more nepotistic. now diverged away from that, giving more positions of power to meccan eleite, benefitting merchants
-government disintegrating during uthman as caliph, he offended different groups of muslims
-uthman murdred so ali resentfully ruled now
-civil wars started under him between uthmans relatives and ali supporters whod killed him
-ali had threats, came successful of first, negotiated with mu’awiya later
THE UMAYYAD CALIPHATE
-ali also stabbed and murdred
-with ali’s son threat removed, Mu‘awiya became the fifth caliph, ending the period of the
four rightly guided caliphs, also known as the Rashidun Caliphate.
-Unable to rely
on the Arab tribal system or peninsula traditions to administer to an ever expanding empire, he
depended on related Greek merchant families for administrators and adopted the existing admin-
istrative machinery of Byzantines, including their imperial customs and bureaucratic practices.
-sunni vs shi’a rift ever expanding
-mu’awiya died peacefully in bed
-yazid next, offensive, civil war between him nad husayn
-‘Alid supporters loathed the Umayyads and
believed that the caliph must be closely related to
the Prophet.
-Husayn’s refusal to recognize Yazid
as the next caliph and their subsequent conflict
culminated in 680 at the Battle of Karbala, located
to the west of present day Baghdad. Yazid dis-
patched a military detachment to Iraq and over-
whelmed Husayn’s small band of armed followers
so that many of Husayn’s own men deserted him
in his hour of need.and he died, which people later felt kinda guilty for. The Shi‘a perceived this seminal event as a turning point in their history.
-Yazid had inherited an empire punctuated by civil war and rebellion.
-Another principle figure
among those in revolt was ibn Zubayr, grandson of Caliph Abu Bakr. Following the death of
Mu‘awiya, Ibn Zubayr had sworn allegiance to Husayn. He remained in Mecca, where he stood in op-
position to the Umayyads. The general unpopularity of the Umayyads advanced his cause, and many Muslims considered him the rightful caliph. Indeed, much of his support came from Muslims who
rejected the idea of hereditary succession and sought a return to the election of caliphs by consensus.
-marwan and then later abdul recovering iraq from ibn zubayr
-A brutal military
leader, Hajjaj laid siege to the holy city of
Mecca in 692 in order to secure the submis-
sion of ibn Zubayr’s men. He then beheaded
ibn Zubayr and crucified his body. Abdul
Malik rewarded the brutal general for his
loyal service with the governorship of Iraq,
where his ruthless reputation persisted.
-Abdul Malik promoted the Arabization of
the caliphate. He rejected the use of Greek,
Persian, Coptic, or Aramaic in govern-
ment, decreeing that all bureaucracy had
to be only in Arabic.
-Their integration
did not lead to the complete Arabization
of Umayyad society that Abdul Malik envi-
sioned, however, and the spread of Arabic
was not as great as the spread of Islam.
-Arabization only accompanied Islamization. Though separate process
-Abdul Malik also sought to Islamize the caliphate.
First, he discontinued the earlier Byzantine coinage and created the first Islamic currency.
Then he institut-
ed a tax code based on the principles of Islam.
-non-muslims were taxed (called jizya)
-By converting to Islam, one could avoid paying
the jizya and kharaj (property tax on jews and Christians) altogether.
-thrust for conversion become primarily economic
-the process of Islamization was relatively
peaceful and gradual, Islam did become the dominant
religion of the region. And the parallel processes of
Arabization and Islamization helped to reestablish
centralized rule after the second civil war.
-abdul malik’s reforms not all equal, Arab
tribal elites did not want to recognize the mawali, non-Arab Muslims, as social equals, so did
not afford them the same rights as Arab Muslims.
-mawali was apparent. They had become the intellectual elite of society and were the bu-
reaucrats and commercial leaders of the umma. Nevertheless, they faced social discrimination.
For example, Umayyad caliphs taxed the mawali as if they were non-Muslims. This inequitable
practice became a social problem for the Umayyads, for it stood in stark relief against the values
of justice and equality that had originally compelled them to convert.
-umar II, caliph, considered it immoral to show prejudice against the mawali and to favor the
Arabs, so he attempted to resolve the lingering hostilities of the mawali by advocating the equality
of all Muslims. It worked, but he died from mad umayyad priviliged class
THE ‘ABBASID CALIPHATE
-For many Muslims, ‘Umar II’s reforms had come too late. The Umayyads had already managed
to alienate three important groups of Muslims, Kharijis, the mawali, and the Shi‘a, whose combined
power and influence were coopted by the ‘Abbasids and threatened the internal security of the
caliphate.
-Kharijis eschewed lineage disputes, instead saying that any Muslim could be the rightful heir to the mantle
of the Prophet, so long as that
person rigorously adhered to
the examples set forth in the Sunna and that caliphs who diverged from
the Prophet’s example should
be overthrown,
-Umayyad
authorities had enacted
punitive (intending as punishment) measures against the
mawali, mostly Persians, but
also Kurds and Turks. They
treated them like second-class
citizens, no different than the
People of the Book.
-shi’a angry about Umayyads not directly related to Muhammad
-Muslims, Kharijis, the mawali, and the Shi‘a, the Abbasids used them to campaign for them against Umayyads
-in time of umayyad disorder, abu muslim, a general, was dispatched to start a revolution
-The ‘Abbasids attempted to eliminate the entire house of the Umayyads so that not one remainedto come forth and rise up against them, but one, ‘Abd al-Rahman, escaped eminent death and fled to Egypt.
-Abd al-Rahman recreated spanish muslim dynasty in spain, Syria. Under the Umayyads, Spain became the wealthiest and most
developed part of Europe (see Chapter Seven). In fact, it was through Islamic Spain that ancient
Greek learning entered Europe.
-The change from the Umayyad’s Arab tribal aristocracy to a more egalitarian government, one
based on the doctrines of Islam, under the ‘Abbasids, corresponds to Ibn Khaldun’s Cyclical Theory
of History.
-The ‘Abbasids officially advocated Sunni orthodoxy and severed their relationship of
convenience with the Shi‘a. They even went so far as to assassinate many Shi‘a leaders, whom
they regarded as potential threats to their rule. To escape ‘Abbasid persecution and find safety
and security, many Shi‘a scattered to the edges of the empire. While the Shi‘a might have been
disappointed with the ‘Abbasids for refusing to advocate Shi‘a Islam, most Muslims welcomed the
‘Abbasid’s arrival. They had justified their revolt against the corrupt Umayyads because the latter
had digressed from the core principles of Islam. As standard bearers of the Prophet’s own family,
the ‘Abbasids were publicly pious, even digging wells and providing protection along hajj routes.
-caliph al-mansur moved abandoned umayyad capital from damascus and constructed city of Baghdad.
-Situated at the confluence of the Tigris and Diyala rivers, it boasted a prime location
that provided access to the sea with enough distance from the coast to offer safety from pirates.
Modeled after circular Persian cities, Baghdad rapidly escaped its confines and expanded into
its environs. Quickly eclipsing Chang’an, it became the largest city in the world, with over half a
million inhabitants. In effect, Baghdad became a public works project, employing 100,000 citizens
and stimulating the economy. Al-Mansur’s newly-founded city proudly displayed lavish ‘Abbasid
family residences and grandiose public buildings. It even had working sewers, which dumped raw
sewage into the nearby canals and rivers.
-Harun al-Rashid:
-represented the climax of ‘Abbasid rulers; as such, he improved upon the work his predecessors
had begun.
-Harun furthered Baghdad’s development into a major economic center
by encouraging trade along the Silk Road and through the waters of the Indian Ocean. He also
made marginal agricultural land more productive, taking advantage of technological advances
in irrigation to cultivate borrowed crops like rice, cotton, and sugar from India, as well as citrus
fruits from China.
-during so called golden age of islam when Baghdad became city of scholarship
-began construction of the Bayt al-Hikmah
(House of Wisdom), the foremost intellectual center in the Islamic world.
-As a result of this move from Damascus to Baghdad, Persia increasingly influenced the Islamic
world,
-combining more of arab and persian culture
-793) responded to the need for non-Arab Muslims to understand the
Quran by systematizing the first Arabic grammar, titled al-Kitab.
-persians contributing to islam
-‘Abbasids slowly
distanced themselves from their subjects. The harem embodied this spatial separation. A
forbidden place, the caliph’s family made the harem their personal residence. Caliphs controlled
the empire through family, solidifying political alliances by marrying many powerful women.
-women important to help with politics, working in the harem
-the ‘Abbasid Caliphate eventually succumbed to internecine (descructive for both sides)
Warfare.
-ex being al amin and al ma’um fighting over caliphate when their father Harun al-Rashid died
-Al-Ma’mun (r.813 – 833) continued his father’s tradition of sponsoring scholarship. He
completed the Bayt al-Hikmah that his father had begun. He also expressed a love for philo-
sophical and theological debate and encouraged the Islamic doctrine known as the Mu‘tazila, a
rationalist formulation of Islam that stressed free will over divine predestination. Influenced by
Aristotelian thought, the Mu‘tazila attempted to solve the theological question of evil. It asserted
that human reason alone could inform proper behavior. Condemned as a heresy for incorporat-
ing extra Islamic patterns of thought into their belief system, many Muslims concluded that the
Mu‘tazila’s rationalism exceeded the holy doctrines of Islam.
-The ‘Abbasids began their long, slow decline under al-Ma’mun, because he gave more freedoms to his emirs, governors over land, leading to decentralization
-Internal problems continued under al-Mu‘tasim who replaced undependable tribal armies with mamluks.
-Islam, caliphs obtained slaves by
raiding outside of the Islamic world or by trading for them. Indoctrinated at a young age, mamluks
remained loyal to their leaders, serving as their personal bodyguard.
-mamluks actually formed a proud caste of soldiers who considered themselves superior to the rest of society. As the elite bodyguardsto the caliph, they supplanted (replace) the tradi-tional ethnic hierarchy of the ‘Abbasids,
a shift which led to much class conflict
often resulting in unrest and civil distur-bances.
-The transition from tribal armies to
mamluks had profound repercussions
for the ‘Abbasids. Mamluks like Ahmad
ibn Tulun (835 – 884), a slave from
Circassia, most exemplified this pattern
of decentralization and fragmentation
that had disastrous consequences for the
‘Abbasid Caliphate.
-sent in to strengthen it, An intellectual and religious person, ibn
Tulun founded schools, hospitals, and
mosques in Egypt, the most famous being the eponymous ibn Tulun Mosque. However, he saw weakness back in Baghdad, as the ‘Abbasids
suffered from instability, including palace intrigue, disorderly mamluks, and revolts like the
Zanj Rebellion, a slave rebellion that threatened the fate of the caliphate. The ‘Abbasids could
not control ibn Tulun, and, as the caliphate broke down, he managed to secure almost complete
autonomy from Baghdad. By the end of his reign, he was so independent that he kept his own tax
revenue and raised his own mamluk army, for he, too, depended militarily and politically on his
loyal mamluks to stay in power.
-The Buyids, an Iranian dynasty, overthrew the ‘Abbasids and relegated
them to the status of mere religious figureheads; the caliphate continued in name only. Following
the collapse of the Abbasids, the centralization and political unity of the lands formerly under
their control broke down; however, economic, cultural, and religious unity remained.
THE FATIMID CALIPHATE
-the rule of the
‘Abbasids over their broad empire generally declined. From this vacuum of power, the Fatimids (910
– 1171) emerged. Members of the Isma‘ili sect of Shi‘a Islam, they traced themselves to being related to Muhammad too
-They refused to recognize the legiti-
macy of the ‘Abbasids and sought to
convert the masses of Sunnis to their
own schismatic brand of Islam. To
do so, Isma‘ili missionaries spread
out to the far flung fringes of the
empire and preached a religious rev-
olution. These emissaries achieved
their greatest success in the North
African Maghreb.
-‘Abd Allah al-Mahdi, founder of the Fatimids, proclaimed himself the mahdi, the precursor
to the final judgement, representing an ideology that compelled people to change. Hounded by
‘Abbasid agents of persecution who sought to uphold Sunni orthodoxy, he fled from his family’s
homeland in Syria, Tunisia. As the mahdi and a catalyst for change, he converted tribal troops and inspired them
to fight on his behalf. endowed the Fatimids with a new ‘asabiyah, providing
them with the unity of purpose necessary to defeat the ‘Abbasids in North Africa.
Conquered whole of northwest africa
-Rather than contend with older, possibly rebellious cities like Alexandria, al-Mu‘izz
founded Cairo, the City of the Conqueror. He developed Cairo into the preeminent cultural and
economic center of the Islamic world, taking over from a Baghdad in decline.
-Al-Mu‘izz estab-
lished al-Azhar, the largest and most famous mosque in Egypt, which also served as a religious
center that focused on the theological development of Shi‘a Islam.
-al hakim unpredictable behavior Additionally,
al-Hakim earned a place in infamy by targeting Christians and Jews, worsening the generally
amiable relations with the People of the Book that the Fatimids had previously enjoyed. Made laws against things that they did for religion (for Europeans used his conduct
as a way to encourage support for the Crusades.)
-Ad-Darazi
believed that universal rationality was made
incarnate in the person of Adam and then passed
down through the prophets to the family of ‘Ali
and his descendants, including the Fatimids. His
doctrines eventually spread to the Levant, where
these ideas found reception amongst the Druze, a
cognate of Darazi, although they viewed Ad-Darazi
as a heretic
-al hakim erratic behavior, walked into desert and never returned
THE CRUSADES
-A series of weak emperors succeeded Romanus
I with Alexios Komnenos (1081 – 1108) eventually ascending to the throne ten years later. As
the new emperor, he made peace with the Seljuqs of Rum, and the two states eventually adopted
cordial relations. They began to trade with each other and even lent one another military support
when needed. Alexius needed this military support in order to secure his borders from groups of
Turkic marauders. To that end, he appealed to Pope Urban II (1088 – 1099) for help recruit-
ing mercenary soldiers, namely Frankish knights.
-European leaders had been searching for creative ways of expelling society’s trou-
blemakers and were not averse to sending their soldiers abroad, for the region was suffering fro
overpopulation and endemic violence. They believed that it was better for the martial groups in
their society to fight against the Muslims than amongst themselves. In this way, the Crusades
externalized continental violence and promoted European peace.
-Urban II started first crusade And he offered them well-designed spiritual rewards. For example, salvation applied to
those who died on campaign, and anyone who invested in a crusade secured themselves a place
in heaven.
-The Crusades started in 1096 and were part of a larger process whereby Muslims ceded territory
to non-Muslims, sometimes permanently. Provoked by al-Hakim’s treatment of Christians in the
Holy Land, as well as the Turkic invasion of Anatolia, Europeans commenced several centuries’
worth of armed crusades against the Muslim states of the eastern Mediterranean and North
Africa. Save for the first crusade, in which the Christians established the Crusader states of Edessa,
Antioch, Tripoli, and the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, all of their campaigns ended in disaster.
-Fatimids watched the Crusaders from afar with indifference.
-The Muslim counterattack eventually came under the direction of Salah al-Din
The Ayyubid Sultanate
-Once in power, Salah al-Din estab-
lished a Sunni government and insisted that the mosque of al-Azhar preach his brand of Islam.
-He used the concept of jihad to unify the Middle East under the banner of Islam in order to defeat the Christians, but he did not principally direct jihad towards them.
-first no interest in the crusader states, then But the Crusaders ultimately brokered
an armistice with Salah al-Din. Eventually, Raynald broke their truce when he started attacking
Muslim pilgrims and trade caravans in the 1180s. Ensuing skirmishes between the forces of Salah
al-Din and Guy de Lusignan, the new King of Jerusalem, presaged a forthcoming battle.
-thristing them out of the city!
-The Battle of Hattin represented a smashing victory for Salah al-Din and a major loss for
the Crusaders. Tradition dictated that Salah al-Din hold most of the leaders for ransom. Unlike
the Crusaders, he treated the defenders of cities with understanding. He showed tolerance of
minorities, and even established a committee to partition Jerusalem amongst all the interested
religious groups. In this way, he proved his moral superiority to the Crusaders.
-Salah al-Din pressed
his advantage. Increasingly isolated and relying on ever dwindling numbers of Latin Christians
willing to remain permanently in the Holy Land, the Latin Crusaders were eventually expelled
from the region
THE MAMLUK SULTANATE
-and a cabal of mamluks loyal to as-Salih murdered Turanshah. They then raised Shajar
al-Durr to the throne. Her rule resulted in much controversy and suffered from many internal
problems.
-The mamluks responded by installing into power
one of their own, a certain Aybak. He married Shajar al-Durr, and she abdicated the throne. The
most powerful mamluk in Egypt, Aybak placated some of the opposition to Shajar al-Durr’s rule
and also dealt with Louis IX’s crusade to Egypt. While mamluks did not possess a tribal ‘asabiyah
in the traditional sense, they did constitute a proud caste of elite warriors who had an exaggerated
sense of group solidarity. As a social group, their former status as slaves provided them with
enough group cohesion to overthrow the Ayyubids.
-shajar al-durr wanted throne to herself, had Aybak killed, Qutuz, a leading mamluk, did not believe her story, imprisoned her in red tower, her son had her killed, Qutuz later disposed of son
-victory over Monols, their Ilkhanate
-Just days after their signal victory over the Mongols, Baybars (1260 – 1277) murdered Qutuz,
continuing a pattern of rule in which only the strongest Mamluk rulers could survive. Too clever to be deposed, Baybars developed a strong military oligarchy that rested on the iqta‘ system, a cen-tralized system of land tenure based on money that, by the thirteenth century, had been perfected
in Egypt.
-Under the iqta‘ system, individual mamluks received a percentage of profit from the sale
of crops for their upkeep. Baybars owned all of the land, so mamluks only received the right to
collect taxes from the land, a right akin to usufruct in feudal Europe.
-Baybars relocated the ‘Abbasid Caliph from Baghdad to Cairo in order to present a veneer of
legitimacy to mamluk rule.
-Since the Ptolemys, Egypt had been ruled by foreigners. In fact, the
only impact native-born Egyptians had was in religion.
-religion. The Mamluk Sultanate practiced Sunni
Islam and emphasized Sufism. Sufis believed that traditional, orthodox Islam lacked compassion,
and their Sufism helped conversion efforts because of its emphasis on love and making a closer
connection to God, as opposed to a strict adherence to the dictates of the Quran. Sufis desired
something more from religion and emphasized integrating the reality of God into man. Sufis
thought that they could achieve a union with God based on love, a notion that contrasted sharply
with the general perception of orthodox Islam which denied believers a direct experience to God
because Muhammad represented the Seal of the Prophets and all understanding of God came
through the prophet.
-They set up new religious schools to pass on this Sufism. These madrasa
consisted of a complex, with a mosque, school, hospital, and water supply for each community.
-witnessed the decline of the Mamluk Empire. Several
internal and external factors help explain their decline. Domestically, the Black Death ravaged
Egypt for years. In fact, it continued in North Africa longer than it did in Europe. This plague caused
economic disruption in the sultanate. With fewer people available, labor, or human capital, became
much more expensive. Further, plague-related inflation destabilized the economy, as the value of
goods and services also rose. The mamluks responded to inflationary pressures by increasing taxes,
but their revenue from those taxes actually decreased. This decrease made it difficult for the mamluks
to maintain their irrigation networks and, without irrigation, agricultural productivity decreased.
-Columbus’s discovery of the New World
began a process in which gold began filtering through Europe and into North Africa. Egypt’s weak
economy could not absorb this massive influx of money, thus causing more inflation. New trade
routes, like the one pioneered by Vasco de Gama, offered Europeans direct sea routes to Asia. No
longer was Egypt the middleman for long-distance trade between Europe and Asia, thereby losing
out on valuable revenue from tariffs. The profits from commerce transferred to the ascending
states of Portugal and Spain. The decline of the Mamluks set the stage for the rise of the Ottomans.
CONCLUSION
A contemporary historian who served the Mamluk Sultanate, Ibn Khaldun astutely recognized
the applicability of his Cyclical Theory of History to the evolution of Islamic history during the
period covered in this chapter. By the eighth century, Islam became the predominant social and
political unifier of the Middle East. And for the next nine hundred years, various caliphates used
family and religion as tools to rule the region. However, these caliphates faced religiously-inspired
revolts that challenged their authority. Quelling these revolts weakened the regimes, often leading
to greater decentralization and the fragmentation of empires. Into these vacuums of power, new
families armed with tribal ‘asabiyah and a novel religious ideology came forth to supplant a once
dominant group who had succumbed to the wiles of civilization and whose influence gradually
waned in the face of insurgent desert peoples.
