Ch2: sociological research Flashcards
empirical evidence
evidence gathered from direct experience or observation, along with scientific method to deliver sociological research
scientific method
A systematic research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions.
steps in the scientific research process
- ask a question / identify the problem
- research existing sources
- formulate a hypothesis
- design and conduct a study
- draw conclusions
- report results
science
provides the basis for being able to distinguish between everyday opinions or beliefs and propositions that can be sustained by evidence
Robert Merton’s CUDOS principles
states that science is empirical knowledge organized around four principles: communalism, universalism, disinterestness, and organized skepticism
communalism
the results of science must be made available to the public, science is freely available, shared knowledge open to public discussion and debate
universalism
the result of science must be evaluated based on universal criteria, not parochial criteria specific to the researchers themselves
disinterestness
science must not be pursued for private interests or personal reward
organized skepticism
science must abandon prior intellectual commitments, critically evaluate claims, and postpone conclusions until sufficient evidence has been. presented
non-scientific knowledge
according to Merton, these are knowledge that fails in various respects to meet the CUDOS criteria
four types of non-scientific reasoning
knowledge based on casual observation, selective evidence, overgeneralization, authority or tradition
knowledge based on casual observation
making observations without systematic process for observation or accessing the accuracy of what is being observed
knowledge based on selective evidence
when we see only patterns that we want to see
knowledge based on overgeneralization
when we assume the broad patterns exist based on limited observations
knowledge based on authority or tradition
a socially defined source of knowledge that might shape beliefs about what is or is not true
scientific research methods
organizations and logical way of learning and knowing about our social world
reliability
how likely results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced
validity
how well the study measures what it was designed to measure
asking a question phase
- narrow enough to study within a geography and time frame
- broad enough to have universal merit
- variables need to be operationalized
- concept is translated into operational variable
operational definition
define the concept in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure the variables
operational variable
a measure that has different values
Karl Popper (difference between scientific and non-scientific propositions)
“falsifiability”, the key difference between scientific and non-scientific propositions was whether or not they were state in a way as to be falsifiable
to be falsifiable means
whether a possible empirical observation could prove them wrong
researching existing sources phase
- background research through a literature review
- sharpens the focus and gain a broad understanding of work previous conducted on the topic
literature review
a review of any existing similar or related studies
hypothesis
an assumption about how variables are related, an educated guess based on theory, observations, patterns of existence, or existing literature
hypothetico-deductive methodologies
positivist methodologies that predicts how one form of human behaviour influences another, hypothesis derived from a theoretical proposition
interpretive approach
seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants (qualitative)
inductive approach
hypothesis emerges only after a substantial period of direct observation or interaction with subjects
Glaser and Strauss’ grounded theory
proposed qualitative data need to go through stages of coding the data before a strong theory of social phenomenon can emerge
survey
- most widely used sociological research methods
- great for discovering how people feel and think but fails to capture the ways people really behave in social context
- small sample sizes will not represent the actual distribution of the population (accuracy and validity)
interview
one-on-one conversation with the subject, gains the subject’s trust by empathizing with them and listening with no judgements
experiment
investigate relationships to test a hypothesis
lab-based experiment
controlled so more data can be recorded in a certain amount of time (control and experimental group)
natural/field experiment
generation of data cannot be controlled, more accurate
field research
gathering primary data from a subject’s natural environment
participant observation
researchers join in the experiment to gain more access or information from the observed group
ethnography
extended observation of the social perspective and cultural values of an entire social setting, focus on how subjects view their own social standing and how they relate to a community (involves participant observation)
case study
in-depth analysis of a single phenomena
secondary data
drawn from the already-completed work of other researchers
content analysis
quantitative approach to textual research that selects an item of textual context that can be reliable and consistently observed and coded, and surveys the prevalence of that item in a smaple
nonreactive research
does not include direct contact with subjects and will not influence people’s behaviours
contingency table
provides a frequency distribution of at least two variable that allows the research to see at a glance how the variable are related
code of ethics
formal guidelines for conducting sociological research
Tri-Council Policy Statement on ethical conduct for research involving humans
- the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR)
- the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)
- the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC)
value neutrality
a practice of remaining impartial without bias or judgement
difference between positivist and interpretive sociology when pursing knowledge
positivist: pursue knowledge that are useful for controlling and administering social life
interpretive: pursue knowledge that promote greater mutual understanding and the possibility of consensus among members of society
authoritative knowledge
knowledge based on the accepted authority of the source
casual observation
knowledge based on observations without any systematic process for observing or assessing the accuracy of observations
interpretive approach
a sociological research approach that seek in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction
positivist approach
a research approach based on the natural science model of knowledge utilizing a hypothetico-deductive formulation of the research questions and quantitative data
Hawthrone effect
when study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed
institutional ethnography
the study of the way everyday life is coordinated through institutional, textually mediated practices
intervening variable
an underlying variable that explains the correlation between two other variables (confounding variable)
random sample
a study’s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population
secondary data analysis
using data collected by others but applying new interpretations
textually mediated communication
institutional forms of communication that rely on written documents, texts, and paperwork
core principles of conduction research
- respect for persons (consent)
- concern for welfare
- justice
group vulnerability
any pre-existing vulnerabilities with proposed participant groups
- psychological or health conditions
- cognitive or emotional factors
- socio-economic status
- legal status
research risk (risk matrix)
the probability and magnitude of harm a participant may experience by taking part
the research ethics board (REB)
approves, rejects, proposes modifications to, or terminates any proposed or ongoing research involving humans
Tuskegee experiment
Untreated Syphilis Study at Tuskegee was conducted between 1932 and 1972 to observe the natural history of untreated syphilis. As part of the study, researchers did not collect informed consent from participants and they did not offer treatment, even after it was widely available.
Stanford Prison Experiment
psychological study conducted in 1971, led by Dr. Philip Zimbardo. It simulated a prison environment with participants assigned as guards and prisoners.
- highlighted the powerful influence of situational factors on human behaviour and raised ethical concerns regarding the treatment of participants
Milgram experiment
conducted by Stanley Milgram in 1961, explored obedience to authority
- electric shocking a confederate
Wodtke’s research on the relationship between intelligence and racist attitudes showed that
Whites with higher intelligence were no more likely to support policies to alleviate racial inequality than those with lower intelligence were
Which of the following was Wodtke’s operational definition of “intelligence” in his study on the relationship of intelligence to racist attitudes?
Score on a verbal ability test
