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Biology > Ch 9 Part 2 > Flashcards

Ch 9 Part 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Components of Blood

A

Plasma (55% by volume) - liquid portion. Contains electrolytes, buffers (pH 7.4), sugars, blood proteins, lipoproteins, CO2, O2, and waste.

Formed elements - cellular components.

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2
Q

Principle Sugar in Blood

A

Glucose

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3
Q

Blood Proteins

A

Most made in liver.

Include Albumin; immunoglobulins (antibodies); fibrinogen, lipoproteins.

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4
Q

Oncotic Pressure

A

Osmotic pressure in the capillaries due to plasma proteins ie. alubmin

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5
Q

Fibrinogen

A

Essential for blood clotting

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6
Q

Lipoproteins

A

fats, cholesterol, and carrier proteins

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7
Q

Metabolic waste products

A

Principle = urea

bilirubin - a breakdown product of heme

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8
Q

Hematocrit

A

Volume of blood occupied by erythrocytes

Males: 40 - 45%

Females: 35 - 40%

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9
Q

White Blood Cells

A

Leukocytes (and platelets) make up about 1%.

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10
Q

Origin of all formed elements in blood

A

Bone Marrow Stem cells

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11
Q

Serum

A

Produced during blood clotting. Same as plasma, but lacks all proteins involved in clotting.

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12
Q

Erythrocytes

A

Erythropoietin (in Kidney) - stimulates RBC production in bone marrow.

Old erythrocytes are eaten by phagocytes in the spleen and liver.

No nucleus or organelles (including mitochondria).

Requires ATP synthesis, but produces ATP through glycolysis.

Flat biconcave shape helps in transport of O2

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13
Q

Blood Typing

A

Most important antigens:

ABO blood group and Rh blood group

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14
Q

Rhesus Factor

A

Classic dominant pattern. RR or Rr leads to expression.

Expression indicated by (+/-)

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15
Q

Hemolytic Disease of the newborn

A

Result of Rh- mom with Rh+ babies.

First baby is typically fine; however, during birth some of baby Rh+ can enter mother, resulting in the development of anti-Rh antibodies. A process known as SENSITIZATION.

Puts future babies at risk as Rh+ antibodies can cross the placental barrier and cross clumping of the blood in a baby.

Typically resolved by injecting mother with anti-Rh antibodies can assist.

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16
Q

Transfusion reaction

A

Destruction of red blood cells carrying incorrect antigens

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17
Q

AB+ and O-

A

AB+ is universal recipient as produces non of the antibodies.

O- produce none of the antigens that another body could react to, so considered universal donor.
**Although O- can sometimes produce anti-A and anti-B antibodies so ideally blood types are matched perfectly.

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18
Q

Leukocytes

A

White blood cells.

Destroy infection and dispose of waste.

Large cells with all normal eukaryotic features.

Macrophages/neutrophils - can move by amoebid motility.

Some exhibit chemotaxis.

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19
Q

Types of Leukocytes

A

Monocyte

Lymphocyte

Granulocyte

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20
Q

Monocyte

A

MACROPHAGE - phagocytose debris and microorganisms; amoebid motility; chemotaxis

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21
Q

Lymphocyte

A

B - cell: mature into plasma cell and produce anti-bodies

T - cell: kill virus infected cells, tumor cells, reject tissue grafts; control immune response

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22
Q

Granulocytes

A

Neutrophil: Phagocytose bacteria resulting in pus, amoebid motility and chemotaxis.

Eosinophil: destroy parasites; allergic reactions

Basophil: store and release histamine; allergic reaction

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23
Q

Platlets

A

No nuclei and limited life span.

Result from fragmentation of large bone marrow cells, MEGAKARYOCYTES (come from same cells that produce RBCs and WBCs)

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24
Q

Platelet Plug

A

Formed by platelets to stop bleeding

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25
Q

Hemostasis

A

Mechanism for body to stop bleeding:

Platelets and Fibrin

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26
Q

Fibrin

A

Threadlike protein that forms mesh to hold platelets together.

When Fibrin dries it becomes a scab.

Fibrinogen —-> Fibrin (mediated by thrombin). Ca and Vitamin K required for many of proteins here.

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27
Q

Thrombus

A

A blood clot. A scab floating in the blood stream.

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28
Q

Hemophilia

A

X-linked recessive group of diseases that reflects faults in the hemostatic system.

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29
Q

Oxygen Circulation

A

O2 is too hydrophobic to dissolve in plasma in significant quantities, requires RBC.

30
Q

Hb (Hemoglobin)

A

Composed of 4 polypeptide subunits.

Each subunit has one molecule of heme, which has single atom of iron.

Each Hb can carry 4 molecules of Oxygen.

Binds Oxygen cooperatively. Tense state when no O2 bound. Relaxed after first O2 binds –> increases likelihood that other subunits will bind O2.

At tissues, Hb has low affinity for O2. At lungs has high affinity.

31
Q

Tense Configuration of Hb

A

Stabilized by decreased pH;

Increased PCO2

Increased Temperature

*Known as the Bohr Effect, and these conditions perfectly characterize the state of active tissue.

32
Q

%Saturation

A

(#O2 molecules bound/#O2 binding sites) *100

Relaxed hemoglobin always has higher %saturation

Represented in the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve. Characteristic Sigmoidal shape is typical of cooperative enzymes.

*Note, fetal Hb is left shifted on this curve as has to “steal” O2 from the mom.

33
Q

CO2 Transport in blood

A
  1. As Bicarbonate and a proton which is highly soluble (73%):

CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> HCO3- + H+

Catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase

  1. Binding of CO2 to hemoglobin (20%). Not at O2 sites, but stabilizes tense hemoglobin state.
  2. CO2 dissolved in blood (7%)
34
Q

Intercellular Clefts

A

Spaces between endothelial cells in capillary walls that facilitate improved exchange of NUTRIENTS, WASTE, WBCs.

Note O2 and CO2 can simply pass through cells by diffusion.

35
Q

Nutrients transported by blood through capillaries into tissue.

A

Amino Acids, Glucose, Lipids.

Hepatic portal vein transports Amino acids and glucose from intestine to liver for storage.

Fats are absorbed from intestine in CHYLOMICRONS (lipoprotein) that can enter lymphatic vessels in intestinal wall called LACTEALS. Lacteals drain into larger lymphatics that drain into a large vein in the neck. ie. bypass the hepatic-portal system.

Chylomicrons are eventually transported to the liver and made into another lipoprotein and then released to move to adipocytes. When needed they are hydrolyzed to be free fatty acids that are released into blood stream.

36
Q

Lipemia

A

Blood appears milky after eating a fatty meal as Chylomicrons in blood.

“lipids flowing in blood”

37
Q

Waste

A

Passed into blood stream, then to liver, converted into bile in gut and excreted as feces. Other waste is secreted directly by kidneys.

38
Q

White Blood Cells

A

Only Neutrophils and Macrophages can move into surrounding tissues using amoebid movement.

39
Q

Water and Capillaries

A

Water flows out of capillaries efficiently:

  1. High hydrostatic pressure from the heart
  2. High osmolarity of surrounding tissue. (System counterbalances this by giving plasma a high osmolarity, oncotic pressure)

Note that water tends to flow out of capillaries at start (high hydrostatic pressure; high osmolarity of surrounding tissue); and into capillaries at end (plasma more dense due to loss of water; lower hydrostatic pressure).

Inflammation reflects a breakdown of this system though. Capillaries swell, intercellular clefts enlarge, more WBCs can leave blood, decreasing osmolarity of blood plasma.

40
Q

Edema

A

water in tissue or swelling

41
Q

Lymphatic System Overview

A

One-way flow system. Function to retrieve WBC and proteins from body and return to circulation.

Lymphatic capillaries –> Lymphatic vessels (valves) –> Lymphatic ducts (smooth muscle) –> Thoracic Duct –> Empties into large vein

Fluid is termed Lymph, and is filtered by lymph nodes.

42
Q

Types of immunity

A

innate; humoral, and cell-mediated

43
Q

Innate Immunity

A

General non-specific immunity to invaders.

Examples:
1. Skin
2. Tears, saliva, blood - contain lysozymes
3. Stomach acidity
4. Macrophages and Neutrophils
5. Complement System - ~20 proteins that can bind surface of foreign cells and lead to destruction

44
Q

Humoral Immunity

A

Specific protection by antibodies (Ab) or Immunglobulins (Ig)

All antibodies are composed of two copies of two different polypeptides joined by disulfide bonds: LIGHT CHAIN and HEAVY CHAIN

Additionally, contains a CONSTANT region and a VARIABLE region (responsible for detecting foreign bodies, forms 3-D cleft specific to antigens).

Immunoglobulins differentiated by constant regions: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE.

Most antibodies circulating in plasma are IgG.

Note that antibodies can only detect antigen surface proteins. Not cytoplasmic ones.

45
Q

IgM

A

Located: Blood and B-cell surface

Function: initial immune response; pentameric in blood; monomeric on B cell as antigen receptor.

46
Q

IgG

A

Location: Blood

Function: Ongoing immune response; can cross placental barrier

47
Q

IgD

A

Location: B-cell surface

Functions: Antigen receptor on B-cell; with IgM

48
Q

IgA

A

Location: Secretions (Saliva, mucus, tears, breast milk)

Functions: protects newborns; dimeric structure

49
Q

IgE

A

Location: blood

Function: Allergic Reactions

50
Q

Antigen

A

Molecule that an antibody binds

51
Q

Epitope

A

Small site that an antibody recognizes on a much larger antigen. There can be multiples on each antigen.

Smaller molecules don’t tend to get their own antibody. Rather, antibodies form to detect the smaller molecules (HAPTEN) when it to a larger antigenic molecule (CARRIER)

52
Q

Antibody binding Antigen effect

A

Can:

  1. Directly innactivate the antigen
  2. Can induce phagocytosis
  3. Can activate the complement system of innate immune response.
53
Q

Antibody Production

A

Formed by Lymphocyte, B Cells

B Cells are derived from bone marrow stem cells.

Genes that encode antibodies are formed from small fragments by recombination. therefore many B cells have different variable gene regions, resulting in unique combinations of antibodies on surface. This means that B and T Cells are an exception to the rule that all cells contain the same genome.

Immature B cells have different antibodies on surface. If bind Antigen that is recognized. B Cell divides into two types: Plasma cells and memory cells.r

54
Q

Plasma Cells

A

Daughter of B-cells that actively produce and release antibody proteins into plasma.

55
Q

Memory Cells

A

Daughter of B-cells that remains dormant after activation of an immature B-cell.

If encounters antigen will rapidly start to produce antibodies.

56
Q

Clonal selection

A

Selection for cells with a specific antigen binding capacity.

57
Q

Primary Immune Response

A

First time that someone experiences an antigen during infection.

Production of antibodies can take up to a week, meaning symptoms are prevalent.

58
Q

Secondary Immune response

A

Much faster than primary.

Result of memory cells.

59
Q

Cell Mediated Immunity

A

Two types of T-Cells:

T helpers (CD4); activates B Cells, T Killer Cells, and other immunity cells - but can only do this if antigen is presented on MHC II proteins by B Cells or macrophages. Controller of immune response. Also hosts HIV.

T Killers (cytotoxic T cells, CD8 cells)

60
Q

Lymphokines and interleukins

A

Hormones released by T helper cells to coordinate the immune response.

61
Q

T-Killer Cell

A

Attacks:

  1. Virus-infected host cells
  2. Cancer cells
  3. Foreign cells ex. skin graft
62
Q

MHC

A

Major Histocompatibility Complex. Important cell surface proteins on T cells.

All our cells express MHC proteins so that T Cells can inspect them.

MHC I - on all nucleated cells in the body. Pick up peptides from inside cell so T Cells can inspect.

MHC II - only expressed on Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) which includes macrophages and B Cells. Phagocytize cells, chop up, and display for T helper cells to recognize – which will activate B Cells and T killer cells.

63
Q

Full activation of T Cells requires

A

T Cell binding to both antigen and the MHC molecule.

64
Q

Bone Marrow Stem Cell

A

Gives rise to blood cells

65
Q

Spleen

A

Filters blood and is a site of immune cell interaction.

Destroys old RBCs.

66
Q

Thymus

A

Site of T-cell maturation.

Shrinks in size in adult as majority of maturation of immune system occurs during childhood.

67
Q

Tonsils

A

Masses of Lymphatic tissue that catch pathogens entering the body. (can be removed)

68
Q

Appendix

A

Found near beginning of large intestine. Acts similarly to tonsils. (Can be removed)

69
Q

Autoimmunity

A

Production of different B and T cells is random and so some of them can become specific to normal cells in the body.

In Bone Marrow:
For B cells that bind normal cell surface proteins, apoptosis is induced. For B cells that bind Soluble proteins, they become unresponsive or ANERGIC.
Only B cells that don’t bind normal cells are released into the blood stream.

In Thymus or Lymphnodes:
T cells that bind surface proteins undergo apoptosis, and because not all cell types exist in thymus, some become ANERGIC when bind outside in the periphery.

70
Q

Autoimmune Diseases

A

Type I daibetes mellitus

Rheumatoid arthritis

Graves disease

myasthenia gravis

Celiac Disease

Biology (14 decks)

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