Ch 7 Cognition Flashcards
Information processing model
A cognitive understanding of memory emphasizing how information is changed when it is encoded stored and retrieved
Memory
Any system-human, animal, or machine- that encode,stores, and retrieves information
Encoding
One of the three basic tasks of memory involving the modification of information to for the preferred format for the memory system
Storage
Three basic tasks of memory involving the retention of encoded material overtime
Retrieval
The third basic task of memory involving the location and recovery of information from memory
Eidetic imagery
And especially clear and persistence, form of memory that is quite rare also known as photo graphic memory
Sensory memory
The first of the three memory preserving brief sensory impressions of stimuli
Working memory
The second of the three memory stages and the most limited in capacity it preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal
Long-term memory
The third of the three memory stages with the largest capacity and longest duration LTM stores materials organized according to meaning
Iconic memory
Visual stimulation
Echoing memory
Tactile stimulation
Chunking
Organizing pieces of information into a small the number of meaningful units a process that frees up space in working memory
Maintenance rehearsal
Oh working memory process in which information is merely repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading well while in working memory
Elaborative rehearsal
Working memory process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM
Level-of-processing theory
The explanation for the fact that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long-term memory will be remembered better
Procedural memory
Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done
Declarative memory
Division of LTM that stores explicit information also known as fact memory
Subdivisions: episodic memory and semantic memory
Episodic memory
A subdivision of declarative memory that stores memory for personal events, or episodes
Semantic memory
A subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including the meaning of words and concepts
Engram
The physical changes in the brain associated with a memory also know as memory trace
Anterograde amnesia
The inability to form memories for new information
Retrograde amnesia
The inability to remember information previously stored
Consolidation
The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories over a period of time
Flashbulb memory
A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event
Implicit memory
A memory that was not deliberately learned or which you have no conscious awareness
Explicit memories
Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled
Retrieval cues
Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior
Priming
A technique for cuing implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cues and the retrieved memory
Recall
A retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information
Recognition
A retrieval method in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented
Encoding specificity principles
The doctrine that memory is encoded and stored with specific cues related to the context in which it was formed
Mood-congruent memory
A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood
TOT phenomenon
The inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory : on the tip of your tongue
The seven sins of memory
Transience, absent-mindedness, blocking misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence
Transience
The impermanence of a long-term memory. Transience is based on the idea that long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time
Forgetting curve
A graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material, such as a list of nonsense syllables. The typical forgetting curve is steep at first, becoming flatter at time goes on
Absent-mindedness
Forgetting caused by lapses in attention
Blocking
Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved. Blocking is caused by interference
Proactive interference
A cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information
Retroactive interference
A cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material
Serial position effect
A form of interference related to the sequence in which information is presented. Generally, items in the middle of the sequence are less well remembered than items first or last
Misattribution
A memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved but are associated with the wrong time, place, or person
Suggestibility
The process of memory distortion as the results of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion
Misinformation effect
The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation
Expectancy bias
In memory, a tendency to distort recalled events to make the fit one’s expectations
Self-consistency bias
The commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitude, opinions, and beliefs than we actually are
Persistence
A memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind
Mnemonics
Techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long-term memory
Method of loci
A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
Natural language mediators
Words associated with new information to be remembered
Language acquisition device or LAD
A biologically organized mental structure in the brain that facilitates the learning of language because it is innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar
Grammar
The rules of language, specifying how to use words, morphemes, and syntax to produce understandable sentences
Morphemes
The meaningful units of language that makes up word. Some whole words are morphemes (root word); other include grammatical compounds that alter a word’s meaning (prefixed and suffixes)
Overregularization
Applying a grammatical rule too widely and thereby creating incorrect forms
Computer metaphor
The idea that the brain is an information-processing organ that operates, in some ways, like a computer
The seven sins of memory
Transience, absent-mindedness, blocking misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence
Transience
The impermanence of a long-term memory. Transience is based on the idea that long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time
Forgetting curve
A graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material, such as a list of nonsense syllables. The typical forgetting curve is steep at first, becoming flatter at time goes on
Absent-mindedness
Forgetting caused by lapses in attention
Blocking
Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved. Blocking is caused by interference
Proactive interference
A cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information
Retroactive interference
A cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material
Serial position effect
A form of interference related to the sequence in which information is presented. Generally, items in the middle of the sequence are less well remembered than items first or last
Misattribution
A memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved but are associated with the wrong time, place, or person
Suggestibility
The process of memory distortion as the results of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion
Misinformation effect
The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation
Expectancy bias
In memory, a tendency to distort recalled events to make the fit one’s expectations
Self-consistency bias
The commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitude, opinions, and beliefs than we actually are
Persistence
A memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind
Mnemonics
Techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long-term memory
Method of loci
A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
Natural language mediators
Words associated with new information to be remembered
Language acquisition device or LAD
A biologically organized mental structure in the brain that facilitates the learning of language because it is innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar
Grammar
The rules of language, specifying how to use words, morphemes, and syntax to produce understandable sentences
Morphemes
The meaningful units of language that makes up word. Some whole words are morphemes (root word); other include grammatical compounds that alter a word’s meaning (prefixed and suffixes)
Overregularization
Applying a grammatical rule too widely and thereby creating incorrect forms
Computer metaphor
The idea that the brain is an information-processing organ that operates, in some ways, like a computer
Concepts
Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience
Natural concepts
Mental representations of objects and events drawn from our direct experience
Prototype
An ideal or most representative example of a conceptual category
Artificial concepts
Concepts defined by rules, such as word definitions and mathematical formulas
Concepts hierarchies
Levels of concepts, from most general to most specific, in which a more general level includes more specific concepts - as the concept of “animal” includes “dog”, “giraffe”, and “lion”
Event related potentials
Brain Waves shown on the EEG in response to stimulation
Scheme
A knowledge cluster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in one’s life
Script
A cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings
Algorithms
Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome, if correctly applied
Heuristics
Cognitive strategies or “rule of thumb” used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not guarantee a correct solution
Mental set
The tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem
Functional fixedness
The inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose; a form of mental set
Hindsight bias
The tendency, after learning about an event, to “second guess” or believe that one could have predicted the event in advance
Anchoring bias
A faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on a completely unrelated quantity
Representativeness bias
A faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category
Availability bias
A faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on information that can be recalled (made available) from personal experience
Creativity
A mental process that produces novel responses that contribute to the solution of problems
