Ch. 7 Flashcards
While STM retains the specific _ details of the sensory stimulus first used to encode the info, LTM typically retains the abstracted _ info, without specific physical details
physical;
semantic
Can LTM contain specific details?
yes, although that is typically an exception to the rule
How is information typically stored in long-term memory?
a. in terms of its sound
b. in terms of its meaning
c. in terms of its visual appearance
d. in terms of its emotional content
b. in terms of its meaning
Accurately remembering information from a previous chapter in this book depends on which type of memory?
a. STM
b. sensory memory
c. LTM
d. factual memory
c. LTM
Even though it feels like a relatively short time, this relies on long-term memory processes.
The _ differences between STM and LTM suggest that they may be distinct memory systems, as proposed in the modal model of memory
behavioural
The _ differences between STM and LTM suggest that they may be distinct memory systems is supported by _ data
neuropsychological
Neuropsychological data as well as patients with _ support behavioural differences in STM and LTM
AMNESIA
Severely impaired LTM capacities due to trauma or brain damage is called _
amnesia
Amnesiacs have difficulties _ new memories
encoding
_ amnesia is common following a TBI, in which the events taking place leading up to the incident are often forgotten
retrograde amnesia
In a video in this chapter, Kayla Hutchinson experiences difficulties with which of the following?
a. making new memories
b. remembering names and faces of new people
c. recalling events and info from her past
d. the inability to learn new tasks
c. recalling events and info from her past
issues with retrograde amnesia
After the onset of _ amnesia, the affected person has difficulty remembering any new info that they encounter
anterograde
Can those with anterograde amnesia have compromised memory from the past?
yes
Henry Gustav Molaison (HM) suffered from anterograde amnesia after his _ was removed as part of an epilepsy treatment, considered an important structure for LTM
Medial temporal lobe (bilateral medial temporal lobectomy)/ hippocampus
Was HM’s cognition and intelligence quite intact when his hippocampus was removed?
yes
Was HM able to discuss facts from his past and general knowledge about the world leading up to his surgery?
yes
Was HM’s short-term memory intact? If so, how and for how long?
yes, provided he held his attention on the task for up to 15 min
An example of an excerpt from Clive Wearing’s journal portrayed that he was living primarily in his _TM, forgetting much of the recent past and un/able to encode the present information
STM;
UNABLE
Damage to the _ will give rise to difficulties recalling or encoding info into LTM while preserving STM
hippocampus
Damage to the left hemisphere near regions of the parietal lobe produced damage in _TM processing while preserving _TM functioning
STM/working;
LTM
Patients with _ perform worse on the match-to-sample task and showed markedly less connectivity between the prefrontal lobe and hippocampal regions
Alzheimer’s
Based on H.M.’s and Clive Wearing’s cases, what is the hippocampus necessary for?
a. encoding new info and experiential memories
b. remembering procedural tasks
c. recalling your name
d. maintaining your IQ
a. encoding new info and experiential memories
In both cases, they are still able to retain memory for actions and movement but cannot update new information about their lives.
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin’s modal model, the longer the info is retained in _TM via rehearsal, the likelier it is that it will enter into _TM
STM;
LTM
Repeating info over and over, without any additional thought about the info, is called _ rehearsal
maintenance
Techniques that go beyond simple repetition of the info in STM and considering the meaning of the info is known as _ rehearsal
elaborative
Elaborative rehearsal is consistently found to lead to greater _ in LTM
encoding
If people are given a long sequence of words to remember and repeat, their performance often resembles a - curve
U-shaped
statistics!
The serial-position effect can be illustrated as a U-shaped curve for performance differences for words presented early (_ effects) and words presented last (_effects).
primacy;
recency
The serial-position effect can be illustrated as a U-shaped curve for performance differences for words presented early (primacy) and words presented last (recency).
The _-axis shows the sequence a given word appeared; the _-axis is the percentage of words remembered correctly for that specific position
x-axis;
y-axis
_ (1962) observed that participants had better performance for info presented to them earlier and also later right before they were asked to recall all of the info
Murdock
the better performance for words presented earlier is referred to as the _ effect
primacy
The better memory for words presented later is referred to as the _ effect
recency
most recent!
Items as part of the recency effect are a part of _TM, whereas items as part of the primacy effect are a part of _TM
STM;
LTM
the former is recent and therefore fresh in one’s mind/STM/working, whereas the latter could have time for rehearsing into LTM
Glanzter & Kunitz (1966) found that by preventing the storage of information in working memory, the _ effect is diminished.
recency
Elaborating on something by considering its meaning more fully and deeply leads to better encoding in LTM according to Craik and Tulving’s (1972) …theory
level of processing theory
A - tasks is a type of memory task in which the experimental subject must simply remember as many items as they can from a memorized list without cues and prompts
free-recall task
Craik and Tulving’s (1972) study results had shown memory performance was greater for items considered in connection to other things. It mapped percent recalled on the _-axis and type of question on the _-axis
x-axis;
y-axis
Examples of superficial processes include for free-recall tasks are:
_
font/size
rereading
case
Examples of creating association processes include for free-recall tasks are:
_
pleasantness
rhymes
Examples of ‘fitting into networks’ processes include for free-recall tasks are:
How will I use this?
what is this similar to?
what _?
category
Automatically processing information will give information the _ advantage for memorization
least; less!
Why?
Forming associations provides advantages through _ processing.
deep
Memorizing info is based on processing (order from lowest to highest):
different senses/association
superficial
using different networks
superficial
different senses/association
using different networks
e.g., memory work by re-reading is superficial; by reciting/rhyming it is using a different sense; by creating a memory palace uses a variety of networks
Levels or processing theory
Encoding info for later _ is most important for LTM. Without it, it would be like doing an internet search without having the appropriate search terms to inquire in a search engine!
Retrieval
According to the video on British royalty, what is a memory short-cut or technique used to help improve your memory called?
a. chunking strategy
b. encoding technique
c. mnemonic device
d. retrieval guide
c. mnemonic device
According to the results from Craik and Tulving’s 1972 study, which study question below do you think would lead to the best recall of vocabulary terms for students?
a. does this term rhyme with another word?
b. what other terms are connected to this term?
c. is this term highlighted?
d. was this term bolded in the text?
b. what other terms are connected to this term?
Making connections leads to deeper processing, while highlighting and bolding focus on shallow, physical characteristics of the term.
In a challenge to levels of processing theory, Morris (1977) presented research suggesting _ can sometimes be the critical factor in what is remembered, rather than _ (levels of processing theory)
retrieval;
encoding
Morris (1977) found that testing conditions are important for successful retrieval. He used the free-recall task as well as the - task.
cue-recall
Morris (1977) found that testing conditions are important for successful retrieval. He used the free-recall task as well as the cue-recall task and found learning/rhyming more helpful for the free-recall task, whereas learning/rhyming was more helpful for the cued-recall task
learning;
rhyming
free-learning
cued-rhyming!
Morris (1977) found that testing conditions are important for successful retrieval. He used the free-recall task as well as the cue-recall task. He found an interaction of task with retrieval which he coined - processing
transfer-appropriate
Morris (1977) found that testing conditions are important for successful retrieval. He used the free-recall task as well as the cue-recall task. He found an interaction of task with retrieval which he coined transfer-appropriate processing: the idea that how well info is remembered depends not only on how it was initially encoded, but also on how well some later memory cue matches…
the way it was encoded
Transfer-appropriate processing suggests that if words were encoded based on their sounds, then a cue to their sound lead to better/worse retrieval than when the word was encoded based on its meaning
better
Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) provided groups of subjects with varying amounts of words (12–48) and compared testing performance between free-recall and category-cued conditions. Recalling the words in _ provided a strong advantage
categories
Analyzing info to produce more elaborate and enduring memory traces is associate with …theory
levels of processing (theory)
The idea that memory is dependent on the relationship between learning and testing is …theory
transfer-appropriate
Levels of processing refers to how deeply you elaborate on the information, while transfer-appropriate processing puts more emphasis on the retrieval cue.
Just about any condition that is present during encoding of info can facilitate later memory, a principle called _ _
encoding specificity
An example of context-dependent memory (a type of encoding specificity) would be…
chewing the same type of gum during studying as well as during an exam, hoping to elicit those same memories
Subjects’ memory performance was best when learning and testing conditions matched (Godden & _, 1975), i.e., learning and testing on land or learning and testing underwater vs. learning on land and tested underwater, etc.
Baddeley
When our internal state or moods are in/congruent, we additionally have improved memory
CONGRUENT
When our internal state or moods are congruent, we additionally have improved memory, which is termed _ _ memory
state-dependent
Encoding specificity theory
When participants were put into a happy or sad mood (using emotion-inducing videos or a suggestive process), people performed a memory task better when the conditions matched between the initial _ and the latest test of memory (Bower, 1981; Drace, 2013)
encoding
Encoding specificity
Having external or internal cues present while trying to remember information that was present during encoding that information leads to more successful retrieval. What is this phenomenon called?
a. encoding specificity
b. state-dependent specificity
c. recall success
d. retrieval specificity
a. encoding specificity
(we learned about state-dependent memory, not specificity!)
Imagine that you are in your living room when you get a craving for ice cream. You get up, walk into your kitchen, and suddenly can’t remember why you’re in there. Deciding not to worry about it, you walk back into the living room. Once you’re back in the living room, you remember that you wanted ice cream! This improved recall in the living room compared to the kitchen would exemplify which of the following?
a. transfer-appropriate processing
b. context-dependent memory
c. state-dependent memory
d. encoding transfer
b. context-dependent memory
a form of encoding specificity
When people are exposed to repeated info over multiple, spaced-out periods, this is more effective in later recall than when the info is repeated over a short time period. This is referred to as the _ effect
spacing
When people are asked to retrieve info on their own, rather than being exposed to it passively, they remember it better (Carrier & Pashler, 1992), likely bc each time you have to recall info, you have to…
re-engage with it more actively
Retrieving info on your own is more effective for remembering, as shown by the discovery of the _ effect
testing
The use of many tests helps one remember info better, creating a _ effect
testing
_ memory includes all of the info we know about the world that we can verbally describe
declarative / explicit
everything we can verbally declare
Declarative/explicit memory is divided into _ memory and semantic memory
episodic
It’s all about facts, dates, theories…
Mental time travel is a metaphor for _ memory: recall events in one’s life chronologically with sensory imagery
episodic
e.g., remembering I had issues with the turn signal made me ensure it remains on when doing a turn (you can have it on and then it stops when you straighten the wheels, even if you’re still turning down a corner). it could have cost me getting my license!
Semantic memory is explicit memory that consists of information without …
sensory details
knowing the definition of memory as the cognitive resources used to recall things is semantic; learning memory from looking at the tests and images in this book would be more episodic
Can episodic memory turn into semantic memory or vice-versa?
yes
e.g., I remember watching the STM video lecture while in Edmonton to start with (episodic), but having studied it I recall more the info from the lecture and other details related to info on STM (semantic memory)
If someone has a TBI and has issues remembering language but can recall what happened at their fifth birthday party, what memory do they have vs what do they seem not to have (hint: more specific than declarative or implicit level)?
do not have semantic;
have episodic memory
Semantic means the knowledge (language, a type of), whereas episodic are the sensory and factual details of events that happened
Activity in the frontal and parietal lobes was found in _ memory, whereas activity in the temporal and occipital was associated with _ memory (hint: more specific than declarative or implicit level)
semantic;
episodic
These areas would be more declarative
Levine et al. (2004) used _ to determine the neurological basis of differences between semantic and episodic memory
fMRI
Memory for personal events would be _ (hint: more specific than declarative or implicit level)
episodic
Memory for general facts and knowledge would be _ (hint: more specific than declarative or implicit level)
semantic
According to research by Levine et al. (2004), when we recall episodic and personally relevant events, which area of the brain is relatively more active than when we remember semantic information?
a. frontal lobes
b. parietal lobes
c. occipital lobes
d. corpus callosum
c. occipital lobes
(or the temporal lobes)
Frontal and parietal are associated with semantic, whereas temporal and occipital - time and vision- with episodic)
_ memory requires everything that can be repeated out loud, whereas _ memory is in terms of indirect effects on behaviour
explicit;
implicit
Learned skills and ex of implicit memories for actions would be termed _ memory
procedural
Procedural memory is particularly not/immune to forgetting compared with other types of memory
IMMUNE!
I.e., it’s highly reliable, and likely never forgotten
The Implicit Associations Task (IAT) has been found to detect underlying _, a form of implicit memory (Greenwald and colleagues, 1998)
prejudice
The Implicit Associations Task (IAT) has been found to detect underlying prejudice, a form of implicit memory (Greenwald and colleagues, 1998).
People often take _ [degree of time] to produce the correct responses when the same response pertains to categories that conflict to societal biases
LONGER
there is conflict, therefore they need to rethink it before answering
The _ effect demonstrates ads can be more favorable if seen before (Perfect & Askew, 1994).
familiarity
Good ol’ marketing at its fineat
Begg et al. (1992) found that people who were presented with statements they had heard before were more likely to rate them as true compared to statements they had never heard. This effect is known as the _ effect
propaganda
NOT the recency effect.
Remembering the first time you rode in a car is an example of explicit/implicit memory
explicit, partic episodic
Remembering how to throw a basketball into a hoop is an example of explicit/implicit memory
implicit, particularly procedural
Rating a person, song, or advertisement more favorably because you have experienced it before is known as what?
a. commercial effect
b. propaganda effect
c. familiarity effect
d. reconsolidation effect
c. familiarity effect
Classical and operant condition refer to the _ [a form of implicit memory] of a stimulus with an involuntary (classical) or voluntary (operant) response
association / priming?
An early negative experience with a type of object may incur a _, a type of association which is a form of implicit memory
PHOBIA!
In a video on phobias, what is the rat’s response to the electrified grid?
a. jumping
b. freezing
c. squeaking
d. running away
b. freezing
As stated in a video on phobias above, what is one of the applications the fear chamber can be used to test?
a. other conditioned stimuli
b. different species’ (e.g., cats’) reaction to fear
c. the impact of lesions on fear
d. other unconditioned responses
c. the impact of lesions on fear
the video demonstrated how rats’ behaviour changed after removing the amygdala
Case studies have shown the _ [brain structure] is associated with the implicit fear conditioning response
amygdala
S.M. had bilateral amygdala damage, which led to a decreased _ response
fear
Explicit/implicit memory tends to be less susceptible to forgetting than explicit/implicit memory
implicit;
explicit
Procedural (riding a bike) is implicit
H.M.’s anterograde amnesia had found that despite an inability to not have much of a long-term memory following his accident, he was still able to have _ memory after the incident, despite no memory of ever doing the task before
procedural
He would do a matching mirror (?) test and get better at it, although he wouldn’t remember having learned the tricks to it before
_TM does not seem to depend on continuous activation of the original activation used to encode stored info
LTM
Related to not needing the hippocampus when items are remembered and easily retrievable in LTM?
Two primary sites have been identified as participating in stable changes taking place within various brain structures, each associated with varying levels of memory _
durability
Two types of processes involved in long-term storage for memory both are a type of memory _ process; the process of making memories durable and, in some cases, permanent
consolidation
The two types of memory consolidation processes in the brain as methods for creating long term memory are:
synaptic consolidation
_ consolidation
systems
Long-term potentiation (LTP) is the most common type of _ consolidation.
synaptic
Long-term potentiation.
1) To begin with, the sending neuron contains a certain number of vesicles containing neurotransmitters (shown as circles with white dots) while the receiving neuron contains a certain number of receptors (shown as horizontal bars).
2) After repeated stimulation, long-term potentiation may result in the sending neuron increasing …and…, and/or the sending neuron increasing the number of receptors.
the number of vesicles and neurotransmitters
T or F: long-term potentiation (LTP) can happen quite quickly, over the course of minutes, and can lead to a relatively stable change in the brain that can store long-term memory from hours to as long as weeks
false - as long as months
tricky question
If a sending neuron fires whenever a certain stimulus is in the environment, the receiving neuron has a dendrite that receives neurotransmitters from the sending neuron and therefore fires at a certain rate whenever the stimulus is present. Over time, … (process) may increase the neurotransmitters or receptors making the receiving neuron fire more frequently whenever the stimulus that causes the sending neuron to fire is present
long-term potentiation
T or F: long-term potentiation is a more durable form of consolidation than systems consolidation
false - systems consolidation depends on more permanent changes
Systems consolidation relies on the activities of the _ working together with the cortex
hippocampus
(noted site for memory - Alzheimer’s, case of H.M.)
Some research suggests that memory is not stored in the hippocampus at all; rather, it coordinates storage in the _
cortex
Hippocampal _ is a phenomenon in which sequences of brain activity in the hippocampus that occurred during behavioural activity are repeated in sequence after the event.
replay
Hippocampal replay has been proposed as a mechanism in _ consolidation
systems
The gist of hippocampal replay is that memories become less/more _ on the hippocampus with increased time and retrieval (Wiltgen et al., 2004)
less dependent
This would make sense if we refer to the hippocampus as a ‘coordinator’ of storage in the brain/cortex, rather than as the memory storage itself
What evidence suggests that hippocampal replay consolidates memories with less dependence on the hippocampus over time?
damage or disruption of the hippocampus doesn’t impact memories made months or years ago, when they are less likely to be ‘coordinated’ by the hippocampus
Standard artificial neural networks (computer-based ‘thinking’ systems) do not have anything like our explicit or _ (form of explicit) memory systems in which memories form a separate information store that may be accessed independently of a specific behaviour; i.e., a neural network cannot reminisce about the past
episodic
there is nothing like the self-knowing and self-referencing systems of the ‘Samantha’ operating system in the film ‘Her’
Although ANNs (artificial neural networks) do not have much of a long-term memory system, they do boast the transfer learning technique which humans do not have: a technique used in training neural networks to use weights of a network ANN-trained on one task that are re-used in a different network in order to learn a different task.
In my own words, what does this mean?
being able to learn everything I know about a subject, and then being able to ‘download’ and ‘transfer’ it to a friend for their own benefit
e.g., transfer learning could otherwise help me learn from Tiff in Baba’s end of life care
Stabilizing of memories into the cortex is _ consolidation
system
INITIAL strengthening of neurons to code for memories is _ consolidation
synaptic
A form of synaptic consolidation in which a receiving neuron becomes more likely to fire in response to the stimulation of a sending neuron is - _
long-term potentiation
Which area of the brain is considered important for consolidation of episodic memories?
a. amygdala
b. parietal lobe
c. temporal lobe
d. hippocampus
d. hippocampus
The primacy effect (from the serial position curve experiment) is often attributed to ______.
a. STM
b. LTM
c. sensory memory
d. implicit memory
d. LTM
Sally begins to prepare her lunch at 12:00 pm and realizes that she can’t remember what she had for breakfast. This highlights a retrieval failure from ______.
a. working memory
b. STM
c. LTM
d. sensory memory
c. LTM
According to levels of processing theory, information encoded in terms of ______ will be best remembered.
a. sound
b. meaning
c. case
d. none of the above (it depends on the retrieval cue)
b. meaning
MaryAnn is studying for her cognition class. She decides to rewrite her notes. MaryAnn is using which of the following to help her study?
a. shallow levels of processing
b. deep levels of processing
c. encoding specificity
d. transfer appropriate processing
a. shallow levels of processing
Craig is preparing to study for his lifespan development course and decides that he will generate examples for each of the terms so that he can better remember them. He is using ______.
a. shallow levels of processing
b. deep levels of processing
c. encoding specificity
d. transfer appropriate processing
b. deep levels of processing
The best summary of the conclusions of Baddeley’s diving experiment is that memory is best ______.
a. initially learned on land
b. initially learned under water regardless of testing condition
c. initially learned on land and then tested under water or initially learned on water and then tested on land
d. initially learned on land and then tested on land or initially learned under water and tested under water
d. initially learned on land and then tested on land or initially learned under water and tested under water
Amnesiac patients like Clive Wearing and H.M. demonstrate ______.
a. impaired LTM; intact STM
b. impaired STM; intact LTM
c. impaired STM and LTM
d. intact STM and LTM
a. impaired LTM; intact STM
Which type of memory specifically involves the experience of “mental time travel”?
a. procedural
b. episodic
c. semantic
d. implicit
b. episodic
This is about remembering dates, people, sensory details, rather than knowing how to do things
Which type of memory is least prone to forgetting?
a. procedural
b. episodic
c. semantic
d. none of the above (they are all equally prone to forgetting)
a. procedural
The formation of very durable long-term memories specifically involves which brain structure?
a. amygdala
b. hippocampus
c. temporal lobe
d. thalamus
b. hippocampus
The primacy effect could be considered to be in ______ memory.
a. STM
b. LTM
c. sensory
d. iconic
b. LTM
While studying for her environmental science class, Shirley tries to make connections with the material and apply it to other contexts. Conversely, Marla is studying the same material by simply re-reading her notes. The two study techniques differ by ______.
a. their motivation
b. the amount of time they’re spending on nit
c. their levels of processing
d. the amount of STM activation
c. their levels of processing
If Shirley and Marla’s environmental science test is an essay test, which student will most likely perform better and have better recall?
a. Shirley
b. Marla
a. Shirley
Every day in psychology class, Riley sits next to a student that brings a strong cup of coffee. The smell is very noticeable to Riley. When it comes time to take the test, Riley notices that the student with coffee is late. While taking the test, Riley struggles remembering a difficult term but is pleasantly surprised when the coffee student shows up with her usual cup of coffee. After smelling the coffee, the answer suddenly returns to her. Having the coffee smell present during both encoding and testing may have helped due to ______.
a. transfer appropriate processing
b. state-dependent learning
c. encoding specificity
d. long-term potentiation
c. encoding specificity
Classical conditioning is an example of which type of memory?
a. episodic
b. implicit
c. declarative
d. semantic
b. implicit
Learning information requires synaptic changes in order to make memories last long-term and become enduring. This process is called ______.
a. long-term durability
b. encoding
c. consolidation
d. plastic potentiation
c. consolidation
There do/not seem to be limiting factors in LTM
do NOT; there’s a good chance we’ll remember some things our entire lives
The Ebbinghaus _ curve tracks recall of elapsed time since learning (x-axis) at retention % (y-axis
forgetting!
According to Ebbinghaus, what we forget at _+ days plateaus for a significant amount of time
2+ days
We can/not access all LTM, if given the opportunity
Technically, we CAN, although under very specific circumstances
The … model was the first theory for memory, and was the first systems approach
Atkinson-Shiffrin
Levels of processing?
The primacy and recency effects can be graphed as the _ _ curve
serial position curve
The serial position curve maps list position (x-axis) with … (y-axis), creating a U-curve; it’s beginning is explained as the primacy effect, and it’s ending as the recency effect
number of words recalled
e.g., remembering a phone number, it is likely easier to remember the first 2 numbers of the last 2 numbers, but less so the numbers between
The recall strategy of … explains the primacy effect
writing out the words at the beginning first is bc there is more of an opportunity for rehearsal, therefore becoming more LTM
The recall strategy of writing out the most recent/last words first, capitalizing on _ stores
STM stores
Poor memory for items in the middle of a recall task is likely explained by _ or interference theory
decay
Items at the end of a list for a serial recall task are affected by _active interference, whereas items at the beginning of a list are affected by _active interference
proactive;
retroactive
Items in the middle of a list for a serial recall task are affected by _ interference
both proactive and retroactive!
trick question
hard to distinguish this against decay…
The most common types of memory tasks for _ memory are recognition and recall tasks [higher-level form of memory]
explicit - testing dates and facts
Cued recall is/not the same as recognition
IS NOT
recognition involves picking out the familiar one, whereas cued recall involves a hint to help recall itself
e.g., you may recognize a particular phrase written in a multiple choice answer (“to be or not to be”, etc.,; you either remember the answer because it’s familiar or not), whereas cued recall involves seeing a writer’s name (Shakespeare) would remind you of the familiar/recognizable phrase
T or F: recall tasks are easier than recognition tasks
false! - there are difficult recall tasks, particularly serial - remembering items in a list. Not so great when your STM is reduced!
Priming and procedural tasks are used for _plicit memory, whereas recognition and recall tasks are used for _plicit memory
implicit;
explicit
Retrograde amnesia is typically brought on by head trauma. One tends to have difficulties with memories that are older or more _ than ones closer to the event (
?
T or F: there is a possibility of recovery from retrograde amnesia, starting from the most recent memories moving backwards in time
false - there is the possibility of recovery but starting from the oldest memories moving FORWARD in time
Brain researchers say amnesia and mean _ amnesia, with an inability to form new memories after TBI or otherwise
anterograde
T or F: retrograde amnesia is graded, whereas anterograde amnesia is not
true!
it is next to impossible to recover from anterograde amnesia, therefore it makes sense that it is, and does not become, graded. retrograde amnesia, on the other hand, can recover and at a gradual pace…so, graded
An intractable illness is considered _
untreatable
Baba’s terminal illness is untreatable/intractable
HM’s anterograde amnesia is from the bilateral removal of his medial temporal lobe in 1953. He did not have changes with his intelligence, language, personality and memory for _ events
PAST!
anterograde amnesia involves an inability to remember what is in the future, so he could never remember items after the surgery
HM had lost all ability to form new _plicit memories but demonstrated normal _plicit learning
explicit;
implicit
e.g., his priming abilities were fine (e.g., word-completion tasks - Wheel of Fortune!), whereas his recognition or recall tasks were poor
Standard model of consolidation is hippocampal-_dependent, but retrieval is hippocampal-_dependent
dependent;
independent
i.e., you depend on the hippocampus to consolidate memory, but not for its retrieval
Standard model of consolidation is hippocampal-dependent, but retrieval is hippocampal-independent. The _ _ theory (MTT) is hippocampal-dependent for consolidation for consolidation and hippocampal-independent retrieval, but for semantic memories only
multiple trace theory
The multiple trace theory (MTT) differs from the standard model of consolidation of long-term memory in how it is hippocampal-dependent for consolidation AND hippocampal-dependent for retrieval of _ memories
episodic
According to the multiple trace theory of long-term memory (MTT), each time memory is reactivated, hippocampus “points” to active cortical regions, thereby important for _ info in time and space
binding
According to the multiple trace theory of long-term memory (MTT), each time memory is reactivated, hippocampus “points” to active cortical regions, thereby important for binding info in time and space. The more overlap across _, the stronger the memory
TIME
Hippocampus acts like the _ of the memory system, according to the multiple trace theory of memory (MTT).
INDEX
e.g., helps one sort out particular details in TIME to determine episodic memories
It is generally believed that episodic memories become _icized when hippocampus is not involved in storage or retrieval. Patients with developmental amnesia provides support for this
semanticized
Why do patients with developmental amnesia provide support for episodic memories becoming semanticized when the hippocampus is not involved
because their semantic memory remains intact, which suggests double dissociation with episodic memory and the hippocampus for storage and retrieval
How you process memory and its encoding is indicative of Craik & Lockhart’s levels of _ view
processing
Maintenance rehearsal can help with LTM but _ rehearsal is more effective
elaborative
_ rehearsal is doing something to add meaning to the information to help with encoding from STM what is already in LTM
ELABORATIVE
Craik and Lockhart’s study asking for words that were similar by rhyme, meaning, or font, helped incorporate ideas for the …theory of long-term memory
levels of processing
i.e., determined meaning more important than superficial ways of understanding or even rhyming to help with overall memory of items
What is a main problem of Craik and Lockheart’s levels of processing theory?
although how we encode info is relevant, it does not enable us to predict memory because we do not know what causes deep processing
it’s cyclical; it doesn’t make any decisions about encoding and retrieval, just that one impacts the other but it’s not clear how or why
Levels of processing is important because the more you do the following things, it helps retaining ideas for LTM:
elaboration
_
distinctiveness
LTM is helped with distinctiveness according to the …theory
levels of processing
Distinctiveness is commonly known as the _ effect or the von Restorff effect.
isolation
it requires one cue that differentiates info for processing which tells us exactly where to find info
_ is commonly known as the isolation effect or the von Restorff effect. It is a DIFFERENT type of memory process that impacts making LTM, and one cue tells us exactly where to find info
distinctiveness
What is the independent variable of experiment 3?
a. semantic relatedness of words in the list
b. amount of attention available
c. the numbers presented at the beginning of the trials
d. the number of words correctly recalled
a. semantic relatedness of words in the list
b. amount of attention available
What was the dependent variable in experiment 3?
a. semantic relatedness of words in the list
b. amount of attention available
c. the numbers presented at the beginning of the trials
d. the number of words correctly recalled
d. the number of words correctly recalled
Was experiment 3 a within- or between-subjects design?
a. within-
b. between-
c. don’t remember
a. within-subjects
everyone participated, so it’s within-subjects
To investigate whether the amount of attention available affects recall of distinct words which statistical test should we use (experiment 3)?
a. independent-samples t-test
b. paired-samples t-test
c. ANOVA
d. don’t remember
ANOVA, to determine FULL attention on distinct words, therefore it’s that test, rather than effects
otherwise, a paired-samples t-test
What is your hypothesis of experiment 3?
a. distinct words will be remembered more than semantically related words
b. there won’t be any difference in memory between type of words
c. distinct words will be remembered more than semantically related words under divided attention only
d. distinct words will be remembered more than semantically related words under full attention only
d. distinct words will be remembered more than semantically related words under full attention only
similar to MTT (multiple trace theory), with distinctiveness impacting LTM when paying attention, rather than multi-tasking
For LTM, information is accessible/available but not accessible/available
available but not accessible
_ specificity was developed by Tulving & Thomson (1973) based on problems for levels of processing theory
encoding
…theory process:
- Target words presented with context words (e.g., train - BLACK) encoding
- free association task (hoping to elicit some of the target words from #1)
- recognition task using self-generated items from phase 2
- cued recall task using context words from phase 1 (given ‘train’ and asked to recall ‘BLACK’)
ENCODING SPECIFICITY
According to encoding specificity theory, items should be _ more than recognized
recalled
Encoding specificity theory suggests learning (i.e., memory) is better when the context at encoding matches the _ at retrieval
context
e.g., learning at school and testing at school
Encoding specificity theory incorporates:
1. …processing
2. context dependent learning
3. state-dependent learning
transfer appropriate processing
In encoding specificity theory, _ dependent learning refers to the environment one is in
context
In encoding specificity theory, _ dependent learning refers to the mood one is it
state
Subjects’ memory performance was best when learning and testing conditions differed/matched (Godden & Baddeley, 1975), i.e., learning and testing on land or learning and testing underwater vs. learning on land and tested underwater, etc.
Matched
