Ch. 6 Flashcards
_ is the process of using info that was obtained in the past to generate some cognitive function in the present
memory
Memory requires three fundamental components:
encoding
_
retrieval
storage
Encoding refers to the initial processing of info so that it is represented in the n_ s_
nervous system
If something is not encoded in the nervous system, then it can/not be remembered
cannot
Encoding can be in the form of short-term transduction of a physical stimulus into a neural code or a _ _ in the brain that encodes a fact or event about the world
structural change
Storage is the retention of _ info
encoded
_ refers to the brain’s ability to access stored info for some cognitive purpose. It depends on links in the chain of memory to function, otherwise items cannot be remembered
retrieval
Both human and _ memory require the same basic elements to function
computer
Putting info into long-term memory stores is _
encoding
Maintaining info in memory is _
storage
Re-activating and using previously learned info is called _
retrieval
To study memory, there are two dimensions that can be measured:
capacity
_
duration
How much info a memory system can hold is a dimension of memory called _
capacity
T or F: a limit has been observed in terms of the amount of more general info you can retain in long-term memory
false
the long-term memory is one helluva thing
We can measure how long info remains in memory, a property called _
duration
Imagine that you’re running a memory study and want to see how your participants’ memory capacity varies when they are in different moods. After inducing participants to feel different moods (happy, sad, or excited), you show them a series of words to recall later. Which of the following would be an appropriate measure of their memory capacity?
a. how happy, sad, or excited the participants feel on a 1-10 scale
b. the amount of time it took for participants to recite the shown words
c. the amount of time it took for participants to utter the first recalled word
d. a count of how many of the shown words they can recite
d. a count of how many of the shown words they can recite
_ articulated that two kinds of memory stores exist:
info relating to a current task or environment
longer-term storage
William James
Atkinson and Shriffrin’s 1968 study established the first substantial theoretical model of memory that attempted to account for experimental data: m_ m_of memory
multi modal model of memory (or multi-store)
In the multi store/modal model of memory, there are proposed 3 kinds with each its own capacity and _
duration
The modal model was created in a new era of _ science, likening our processing of info to encoding and storing info into a _ [same word]
computer
In the multi modal model, there is:
sensory input
sensory memory
short-term memory
…
long-term memory
In the multi modal model, there is:
sensory input
sensory memory (_ info is lost)
short-term memory
long-term memory
unattended
In the multi modal model, there is:
sensory input
sensory memory
short-term memory (requires attention and maintenance , otherwise un [form of 1st word] info is lost)
long-term memory
rehearsal; unrehearsed
In the multi modal model, there is:
sensory input
sensory memory
short-term memory
long-term memory (requires encoding; some info may be lost over time, and refers to … for retrieval)
short-term memory
Sensory memory has an approx duration of …
1 second
T or F: According to the modal model, most of the info in sensory memory is attended but it is lost quickly
false - most is unattended (we can’t attend to everything happening around us), so it is lost quickly
if most sensory memory was attended, we’d be a helluva lot smarter, and wouldn’t be prone to errors during eyewitness testimony, etc.
T or F: According to the multi modal model, Once info is encoded in short-term memory it can be retained for 15 - 30 seconds or even longer if it is _
rehearsed
_ memory is capable of producing a behavioural output, such as repeating a phone number someone has just told you or responding to a recall task
short-term memory
sensory memory does NOT have a behavioural output - it’s too busy dealing with everything that is being processed
Maintenance _ is the mental repetition of info in STM, which prolongs its duration
rehearsal
There is no agreed-upon method for measuring the capacity of …memory because only a fraction of …memory [different form] is encoded as … [1st word]
LTM;
STM;
LTM
It requires _ attention to process the meaning of words someone speaks to then possibly retain in STM
selective (like a filter)
What does the information processing, or modal, model explain?
a. where info is stored in the brain
b. how incoming input from the environment is conceptually stored in the mind
c. where different types of sensory, STM and LTM are stored separately in the brain
b. how incoming input from the environment is conceptually stored in the mind
Whatever you are thinking about right now is occupying your ______ memory.
a. sensory
b. STM
c. LTM
d. none of the above
b. STM
New information in our immediate awareness has not yet been encoded for permanent storage but we may be retrieving information from long-term memory to be thinking about right now.
What is the process that moves information from sensory memory into short-term memory?
a. attention
b. encoding
c. retrieval
a. attention
The initial transduction of sensory information, it is retained within our nervous system for a brief period, around _milliseconds
250
Sensory memory may actually be directly observed in action. For example, there is a phenomenon called the _ of _, in which you can directly see information that entered your eye moments ago
persistence of vision
Persistence of vision occurs because the _ of the object in one location is still present in our visual system after the object has moved to a different location
trace
e.g., you can see the ‘trace’ of a circle, etc. when you use a sparkler because our sensory memory captures those traces and in the dark it takes longer for them to dissipate because of the stark contrast
The thaumatrop was a popular source of entertainment in the 19th century consisting of a disk with different drawings on each side and when spun quickly would lead to the illusion of seeing both images at the same time. This is an example of the _ of _ phenomenon
persistence of vision
When LED lights are moved quickly through space, why does this produce a “spread out” pattern?
a. the high speed of the lights creates energy in the surrounding areas
b. the persistence of vision retains multiple positions of lights as they move through space
c. the LEDs are moving at a speed too fast for your brain to process and therefore partial info is lost
d. your LTM stores past info while your sensory memory is still processing it
b. the persistence of vision retains multiple positions of lights as they move through space
sensory memory’s refresh rate can create this illusion
Sperling (1960) provided subjects with up to 12 pieces of information (e.g., letters) and asked them to recall all that they saw. Subjects were typically able to recall nearly _% of the information
40%
Sperling (1960) conducted a series of well-known experiments in which participants were presented stimuli consisting of three rows of letters. In the whole-report condition, participants were presented with a grid of letters for a duration of between 15 and 500 milliseconds and were asked to report as many of the letters from the grid as they could. What Sperling found was that participants typically reported the letters from one of the rows, suggesting that the row that was available to report was based on…
which one they were paying attention to / attending
The ability to report the letters in Sperling’s rows of letters experiment, a behavioural output, depends on those items making their way into … using attention
into STM
Sperling referred to a high-capacity/short-duration form of visual memory as _ memory
iconic memory
based on the fact that the memory is something like a photographic image or icon; if you have photographic memory, it is likely to be of high capacity (high yield, etc.), but may not necessarily last very long
Other experiments using sound to remember, rather than Sperling’s letter grids, suggest that there is also an auditory form of sensory memory, called _ memory
echoic
“Hello……hello….helllo…!”
T or F: there are only two types of sensory memory
false - there may be more, but they are difficult to research experimentally
there may be tactile memory, even taste, but it’s hard to capture sensory vs short-term. But you can certainly remember tastes, textures, etc.
What is the duration of iconic memory?
a. 30 seconds
b. 1 second
c. 1 minute
d. 5 - 6 seconds
b. 1 second
Sperling’s partial report method illustrated that subject performance quickly decayed if there was a delay between stimulus exposure and the cue-tone
it is still a form of sensory memory, so it’s likely just as long - 1 second
According to the modal model of memory, …’s function is to hold information in place until it can be used for some behavioral task (such as entering the name of a website you just heard about), transferring information into LTM, or maintaining the information through rehearsal.
STM
In the auditory domain (e.g., remembering a list of numbers or names), it is generally agreed that STM can hold an average of _ items. In the visual domain it is agreed (not as unanimously) that it can hold around _ items. This suggests that the auditory domain is more stable than the visual domain.
seven;
four
auditory info seems to be more stable than visual
Miller calls the capacity limit to remember items as “The magical number _ plus or minus _”
seven;
two
Research has found that a person’s capacity to remember quantities of info remains stable across multiple tests, and even over many years, and thus appears to be a fixed feature of a person’s brain. Those who can remember a lot are considered -, and those who cannot are considered of -
high-capacity (up to 9)
low-capacity (down to 5)
We can remember in STM meaningful information by way of _, whether letters, numbers or sounds that constitute a meaningful whole
chunks
The capacity to chunk info into larger units depends on engaging _TM
LTM, where patterns of previously encountered items are stored
that’s why chess players have better memory when presented with items on a chessboard; they can utilize their LTM to remember where items are, as opposed to novices who may not be familiar with particular plays, etc.
T or F: According to Miller, once a combo of items is matched to memory, it needs to be represented as separate items
false
if it’s already matched in chunks, why repeat work? it’s already applied and encoded
A capacity limit has been found for _ STM (_STM)
visual STM (VSTM)
we can only remember so many details from someone walking down the street; it is only the attended ones that are remembered, of which there are still less that are usually remembered (3 to 5)
VSTM (visual short-term memory) is typically measured using a _-detection task
change
In Luck and Vogel’s 1997 study, they had participants presented with a screen with several objects, such as colored squares. This screen disappears and a new one is shown, which may be identical to the original or have some property changed. When the number of items in the set is less than 4, performance is nearly perfect but after four items, it begins to decline rapidly with the number of items in the set. Using this kind of task, researchers have concluded that _ has a capacity of three to five items
VSTM
Luck and Vogel (1997) established the visual short term memory (VSTM) as having a capacity of _ to _ items
3 to 5
Luck and Vogel (1997) used a paradigm reminiscent of _ _ in order to test visual memory. Once the number of objects increased to greater than five, memory performance rapidly dropped off
change blindness
In the case of visual stimuli, people can remember _ visual objects, even if each object has multiple features, such as a shape, a colour, and an orientation. In this case, remembering four objects would consist of remembering 12 features (Wheeler & Treisman, 2002)
4 visual objects;
12 features (3 features per object - 3 x 4 = 12)
Inoue and Matsuzawa (2007) provided chimpanzees and human participants with five digits that appeared on a screen from 210 milliseconds up to 650 milliseconds. After that wait period, the digits disappeared and were replaced by blank squares. The subject (whether human or chimp) was tasked with… to reveal the digits in numerical order.
touching the squares
Inoue and Matsuzawa (2007) provided chimpanzees and human participants with five digits that appeared on a screen from 210 milliseconds up to 650 milliseconds. After that wait period, the digits disappeared and were replaced by blank squares. The subject (whether human or chimp) was tasked with touching the squares to reveal the digits in numerical order. On average, most humans’ memory performance for the five digits decreased when the presentation time dipped below 400 milliseconds. However, some chimpanzees were …
able to retain them, and in half the time!
On how many trials was Ayumu the Chimp able to correctly remember the order of the numbers?
a. nearly 10% of the trials
b. a third of the time
c. nearly 90% of the trials
d. all of the trials
c. nearly 90% of the trials
Professional _ists are capable of forming long chunks of data into memory, rather than having an enhanced memory capacity
mnemonists
mnemonnics - using new names , stories, etc. as reminder of data to be remembered)
Competitors in the World Memory, Mental Calculation and Speed Reading Organization are said to have great …, rather than enhanced memory capacity
memory tricks, such as mnemonics
Chase and Simon (1973) examined the effect of expertise in the _ domain, comparing chess experts’ and novices’ ability to memorize configs of chess pieces on a chess board
visual
Chase and Simon (1973) examined the effect of expertise in the visual domain, comparing chess experts’ and novices’ ability to memorize configs of chess pieces on a chess board. They found that chess experts were able to remember the positions of around _ pieces while the novices could only remember four. These results were four times higher than the established amount for standard VSTM (i.e., 4)!
16
four times the standard VSTM!
The effect of _ was only found to apply in Chase and Simon’s 1973 study when the chess pieces consisted of real configs that could occur in a chess game
expertise
When Chase and Simon’s (1973) study involved randomly placed pieces in a config that would never occur, chess specialists performed … to novices at recall
similar to novices
Chase and Simon (1973) demonstrated which of the following facilitates the storage of information?
a. practice
b. having a higher IQ
c. attaching meaning to the info
d. thinking about the info for a longer amount of time
c. attaching meaning to the info
this meaning would be remembered likely as chunks
Experts and novices do not differ on overall intelligence but how they use their prior knowledge.
Without any distractions, people are able to engage in _ _, the repetition of information in STM which essentially reactivates the initial encoding
maintenance rehearsal
Information can theoretically persist in STM for as long as you can keep _
rehearsing
this is dependent on not having anything else to spend time on, but there are typically some things happening in the environment that would affect STM, let alone thoughts or emotions….etc
The Brown-Peterson task consisted of an STM task in which participants were told, on each experimental trial, to memorize 3 letters, after which were presented with a 2-digit number and had to begin …
counting backward by threes out loud.
The Brown-Peterson task consisted of an STM task in which participants were told, on each experimental trial, to memorize 3 letters, after which were presented with a 2-digit number and had to begin counting backward by threes out loud, a task that was intended to prevent _ of the trigram. After a certain duration of counting backward, participants had to report their memory of the trigram.
rehearsal
Peterson and Peterson (1959) found that when articulatory rehearsal was suppressed, the memory of the trigram (3 letters in the Brown-Peterson task) would fade, and by _ to _ seconds, participants showed little to no memory of the original trigram
15 - 18 seconds
Peterson and Peterson (1959) argued that the duration of STM, in the absence of _, is about 15 seconds
rehearsal
Peterson and Peterson (1959) could map the trajectory of STM in the Brown-Peterson task by measuring correct recall (%) on the _-axis, and recall interval (seconds) on the _-axis
y-axis;
x-axis
Peterson and Peterson (1959) found that as the time interval increased, participants were less successful at recalling even small amounts of information.
According to _ models, forgetting occurs simply because of the passage of time
decaying
memory is thought of like a leaky bucket in which info trickles out
One of the possible causes of forgetting is _, in which new info that comes into memory serves to displace older info
interference
_ interference refers to cases in which learned info causes you to forget something that you learn in the future
proactive
refers to the item in the future that is forgotten
_ interference refers to cases in which newer info causes you to get something from the past
retroactive
if you were to study for biology after reading this book and found that your memory for the biology was inhibited by the stored information from this book, you would encounter _ interference (sorry!).
proactive
If studying for biology later on causes you to forget what you read here, you would experience _ interference
retroactive
refers to the item in the past that is forgotten
Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) experiment showing fading memory of people doing a visual task with rehearsal suppression due to _, not interference, based on the fact that participants were not asked to remember anything else besides the letters on each trial
decay
Although it is said to be due to decay, the reason for forgetting in the Brown-Peterson task may be due to interference from _TM to the _TM; specifically, as participants performed multiple trials over the course of the experiment, it is possible that some of the letters from previous trials could interfere (proactively) with the current trial
LTM to STM
if it happened quite a few min ago, then it would be LTM, not STM or a different type of memory
Keppel and Underwood (1962) redid the Brown-Peterson task and found that in the first few trials, participants remembered the trigram for up to 15 seconds with relatively high accuracy. Only on later trials, after participants had seen many previous trigrams…
did decay over time begin to appear, with items remembered at a reduced accuracy
Lewandowsky et al. (2004) used the _ _ technique to prevent rehearsal without causing interference in STM with a new item to remember
articulatory suppression
Lewandowsky et al. (2004) had participants report remembered sequences of letters by responding on a computer keyboard. They had participants type the sequence at varying speeds, so they could measure the effect of time on recall.
Overall, they found that there was A/NO effect of the speed at which participants had to repeat the letters on their recall of the items. They concluded that the passage of time alone, without interference, does not cause decay in STM
NO
Based on the evidence discussed in the two studies above, which of these is the most supported explanation for why forgetting occurs in short-term memory?
a. interference
b. decay
c. a combo of interference and decay
d. neither decay nor interference
c. a combo of interference and decay
Stewart is a senior in high school and has had to change his school email account each year. As he is entering his new password, he keeps getting an error message because the password is wrong. It turns out that he keeps entering his freshman year password. His inability to remember his newest password in this example is due to ______.
a. proactive interference
b. retroactive interference
c. a combo of retroactive and proactive interference
d. none of the above (it depends on whether the new password has been rehearsed)
a. proactive interference
Older information (“Material A”) is interfering with newer information (“Material B”). Interference focuses on the information that is being disrupted
Would the sensory memory (not short-term memory) of chess experts be better than that of non-experts for chess piece configurations, and why?
a. no, bc they can only chunk info that is processed in STM, not sensory memory
b. no, bc they can only rehearse info in STM, not sensory memory
c. yes, bc they can chunk info by sending it to LTM
d. yes, bc they can rehearse info in sensory memory
a. no, bc they can only chunk info that is processed in STM, not sensory memory
Trick question!
An updated elaboration of STM was proposed by _’s (1974) working memory (WM) model
Baddeley’s
The WM model proposed that STM is not a single unitary store but consists of _ [number] connected but distinct sub-units
three
The visual component of WM is the - _
visuo-spatial sketchpad
The visuo-spatial sketchpad can be used to analyze and manipulate visual info such as mentally rotating a remembered object. This is/not similar to the original conception of VSTM
is not
visual STM is based on the item a it appears, not any rotation, etc. of it
The 3 components of WM are:
visuo-spatial sketchpad
phonological loop
_ _
central executive
THe _ _ is the auditory component of WM. It allows auditory info to be repeated so that it may be used or analyzed.
phonological loop
THe phonological loop is the auditory component of WM. It allows auditory info to be repeated so that it may be used or analyzed. It is/not similar to the original conception of STM
IT IS SIMILAR
A component that is completely novel to the WM model is _ _: a gatekeeper that determines what info makes it into working memory.
central executive
The_ _ toggles between the visual and auditory memory stores, as a component of the Baddeley’s WM, therefore it is placed in the middle of the diagram, coordinating with visual and auditory info by way of the visuo-spatial sketchpad and the phonological loop
central executive
Replaying verbal information in your mind is considered to be distinct from visually imagining, or _, information
storing
The properties of working memory are stored in terms of its distinct sensory codes (i.e., …)
auditory working memory is remembered in terms of how it was remembered auditorially (e.g., pitch, tone, etc.)
The critical aspect of WM is that it requires _ observation
introspective; what you remember has properties pertaining to the sense used: listening you remember pitch, intonation, etc.
Brooks (1968) illustrated how subjects completed memory tasks primarily taxing either the phonological loop or visuo-spatial sketchpad and then used either an auditory or visual mode to respond. He found that people did better on the task when they had to respond in a _ modality than in the one initially used
different!
Brooks (1968) illustrated how subjects completed memory tasks primarily taxing either the phonological loop or visuo-spatial sketchpad and then used either an auditory or visual mode to respond. He found that people did better on the task when they had to respond in a different modality than what they had to remember. These results suggest that visual and auditory memory are processed _, and they do/not interfere with one another
SEPARATELY;
DO NOT INTERFERE
remember, this is what this particular study had shown, rather than what later research has since found
Conrad (1974) found that participants confused letters that ______ to each other when performing a free recall task.
a. sound similar
b. look similar
c. sound different
d. look different
a. sound similar
This is an error due to auditory info
free recall is an AUDITORY task, so it would make sense that it would be auditory info used, and when they sound similar they would do worse
note that if they were using a different sense, then it would be visual, which should show more effective recall, particularly when they look different
Vogel et al. (2005) compared the ability of individuals with high and low short-term memory capacity to be able to select relevant items for memory and filter out irrelevant distractors. The cue’s direction indicated which side of the display (left or right) participants had to remember, then they were presented with a memory display, consisting of several coloured triangles, either 2 blue triangles (of blue and red) or 4 blue triangles. They were asked to see if a later test display looked similar to the initial image. They also had to use an EEG to measure event-related potential response known to be active during STM activation.
What did the test show (re: EEG)?
a stronger ERP response was shown for FOUR blue rectangles represented than two blue rectangles represented
(this effect would be across individuals - between-subjects, regardless of memory capacity group)
Vogel et al. (2005) compared the ability of individuals with high and low short-term memory capacity to be able to select relevant items for memory and filter out irrelevant distractors. The cue’s direction indicated which side of the display (left or right) participants had to remember, then they were presented with a memory display, consisting of several coloured triangles, either 2 blue triangles (of blue and red) or 4 blue triangles (8 total). They were asked to see if a later test display looked similar to the initial image. They also had to use an EEG to measure event-related potential response known to be active during STM activation.
What did researchers find (re: EEG) when the participants were asked to ignore the red triangles and only pay attention to 2 blue triangles (4 total)?
low-STM individuals used much higher ERP response since they forgot that they should be looking for 2, not 4, than high-STM individuals who had a low ERP (remembered the new instructions; filtered out the distracters)
Vogel et al. (2005) compared the ability of individuals with high and low short-term memory capacity to be able to select relevant items for memory and filter out irrelevant distractors. The cue’s direction indicated which side of the display (left or right) participants had to remember, then they were presented with a memory display, consisting of several coloured triangles, either 2 blue triangles (of blue and red) or 4 blue triangles (8 total). They were asked to see if a later test display looked similar to the initial image. They also had to use an EEG to measure event-related potential response known to be active during STM activation.
What did they determine would be the cause of low ERP response in high-STM individuals for the task asking to only pay attention to 2 blue (when presented with 4 triangles total)?
any distractions would be due to an issue with the central executive; high-STM individuals would have filtered that through. Likely an issue with central executive, perhaps not memory decline but an inability to work at such a high capacity
Vogel, McCollough, and Machizawa (2005) demonstrated that individuals with high short-term memory capacity ______.
a. are better at paying attention to irrelevant info but experience a trade-off in executive processing
b. can better track multiple moving objects and therefore have a higher performing memory
c. are negatively correlated with central executive processing abilities
d. are better at focusing on relevant info and filtering irrelevant info
d. are better at focusing on relevant info and filtering irrelevant info
Higher STM memory capacity helped improve subjects’ performance
Which of the following is one job of the central executive, according to the working memory model?
a. attach meaning to incoming info
b. activate relevant associations for new info to make it easier to remember
c. replay verbal info in your mind to help you remember that auditory info
d. coordinate between the visuo-spatial sketchpad and phonological loop
d. coordinate between the visuo-spatial sketchpad and phonological loop
It is the central store, working as the “boss”
answer “a. attach meaning to incoming info” is tricky bc although the central executive is filtering for relevant info, it isn’t attaching meaning; it’s filtering for relevant meaning, but not making any assumptions about it. Trick question!
Baddeley’s WM received criticism for not incorporating memory when it forms a compelling and …, a phenomenon related to Miller’s chunking.
coherent story; this explains why the memory palace is such an effective mechanism for memory
Baddeley’s WM received criticism for not incorporating memory when _ experience appears to bind together different modalities
conscious
remember a person speaking with a given voice (although it depends on introspection)
Baddeley’s WM received criticism for not incorporating memory when conscious experience [and some introspection] appears to bind together different modalities. This is considered a “_ problem”
binding problem
Based on criticism of Baddeley’s initial WM model, he updated it with a new component called the _ _.
episodic buffer
Based on criticism of Baddeley’s initial WM model, he updated it with a new component called the episodic buffer: a separate, time-limited, memory store that can combine info from across different sources, including the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad and _
long-term memory
Baddeley’s episodic buffer is controlled by the central executive and is assumed to lead to conscious awareness of _-based, multi-sensory memories
time
Conway (2003) reviewed _ _ (g) and determined a strong correlation with working memory capacity
general intelligence
Li and Geary (2017) suggested a relationship between children with greater memory spans and an ability to increase other areas of _ due to developmental factors
cognition
1st graders’ visual WM shown to be predictive of their math abilities in the 5th grade
Li and Geary (2017) suggested a relationship between children with greater memory spans and an ability to increase other areas of cognition due to developmental factors. They had shown that 1st graders’ skills in _ working memory were predictive of their 5th grade math skills
visual
Kali (2007) had shown that memory span in young children has been found to predict _ ability in adolescents
reasoning
What improvements do working memory training games offer?
a. they offer overall brain health because working memory is so integral to every facet of cognition
b. the training games facilitate neuroplasticity and are empirically proven to be effective
c. they have very specific and possibly limited effects but do not appear harmful in any way
d. they prevent Alzheimer’s degeneration and cognitive decline
c. they have very specific and possibly limited effects but do not appear harmful in any way
they may or MAY NOT provide any benefit whatsoever
According to the working memory model, differences in short-term memory capacity are most likely attributable to which component?
a. the phonological loop
b. the visuo-spatial sketchpad
c. the central executive
d. the episodic buffer
c. the central executive
In many cases, _ depends on processing sequences of data over time, rather than a single input that assumes a useful output (i.e., seeing a picture of a cat assumes what a cat looks like, although generally it would take _ [same word] to determine this)
cognition
Comparing sequences enables the brain and computers to determine a useful output (i.e., several sequences of cat pictures show what the cat generally looks like, and helps affirm its status as a cat). This knowledge is most often used in language /
translation/analysis
Comparing sequences enables the brain and computers to determine a useful output (i.e., several sequences of cat pictures show what the cat generally looks like, and helps affirm its status as a cat). These neural networks are considered _ (RNNs)
recurrent
Recurrent neural networks contain nodes that loop their output back into _ as inputs, allowing them to process past and current inputs simultaneously.
themselves (self-referencing)
It’s as if they’re “studying cognition”
Recurrent neural networks are related to human STM because it depends on the continuous “activation” of _ after it no longer is present as an output
input
T or F: what matters is the timing in which input is fed into the STM system, rather than its order
FALSE! it’s the opposite: what matters is the ORDER in which input is fed into the STM system, rather than its order
Information remains in sensory memory for ______.
a. a second or a fraction of a second
b. 15 - 30 second
c. 1 - 3 minutes
d. as long as it is rehearsed
a. a second or a fraction of a second
When a sparkler is twirled rapidly, people perceive a circle of light. This occurs because ______.
a. the trail you see is caused by sparks left behind from the sparkler
b. due to its super high intensity, we see the light from the sparkler for about a second after it goes out
c. the length of iconic memory (the persistence of vision) is about 1/25th of a second
d. Gestalt principles work to complete the circle in our minds
c. the length of iconic memory (the persistence of vision) is about 1/25th of a second
Compared to sensory memory, short-term memory has ______.
a. low capacity; long duration
b. high capacity; short duration
c. high capacity; long duration
d. low capacity; short duration
a. low capacity; long duration
15 - 30 seconds
it’s higher in duration than sensory memory, but much lower in capacity than sensory information
The conclusion from the experiment in which a chess master and a chess novice (beginner) were asked to remember the positions of chess pieces on a chess board was that ______.
a. chess masters outperform novices in all conditions
b. chess masters have developed better memory skills than novices
c. novices do better because they are not distracted by irrelevant knowledge about previous chess games
d. chess masters did better only when possible real game arrangements were used
d. chess masters did better only when possible real game arrangements were used
Learning new material for the upcoming exam that makes it harder to remember material from the last exam is an example of ______.
a. mesoactive interference
b. proactive interference
c. retroactive interference
d. interactive interference
c. retroactive interference
Sarah is studying for her chemistry test. She decides to create mnemonic devices to better facilitate her ______ of the material.
a. encoding
b. attention
c. interference
d. retrieval
a. encoding
she’s actively trying to learn (not going back to it yet), so I would say it’s encoding.
If she was referring to mnemonic devices previously learned/encoded, then I’d say it’s retrieval. Trick question!
Which of the following cognitive functions use the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval? (multiple answers allowed)
a. motion perception
b. learning names
c. applying previously learned math formulas on a test
d. remembering a friend’s phone number
all of them!
Order the following stores of memory in order of the duration they store information (longest to shortest).
short-term memory
sensory memory
long-term memory
long-term memory
short-term memory
sensory memory
Joe and Margo are headed to the grocery store but need to write their grocery list first. Margo is reading off items to Joe to write down. As she is rattling off items, Joe exclaims, “Slow down! I can’t keep all of these items in my mind long enough to get them written. I keep forgetting items.” Margo has listed too many items and has exceeded his ______ for number of items he can store into his short-term memory.
a. duration
b. capacity
c. ability
d. durability
b. capacity
Why were phone numbers originally designed to have seven digits?
a. even numbers seemed too weird to the average telephone user
b. it needed to be long enough to give everyone unique numbers
c. it is the average capacity of our short-term memory
d. longer than seven digits caused attentional capacities to decrease, hindering memory
c. it is the average capacity of our short-term memory
Chase and Simon (1973) tested short-term memory capacity between novice and expert chess players. What was the significance of their findings?
a. they found that experts are experts bc they have better memory for most things
b. expert chess players were more likely to remember only meaningful chunks of info that related to the game
c. novice players excelled at remembering random arrangements of chess pieces bc they had no interference from past games
d. novice players excelled at remembering organized chunks of info bc they have no proactive interference from previous games
b. expert chess players were more likely to remember only meaningful chunks of info that related to the game
Dustin has started dating Jolene and discovers that he is so infatuated with her that he struggles to even remember his old girlfriends’ names. His inability to remember the older names is an example of ______.
a. retroactive interference
b. proactive interference
c. memory recall
d. recall blockade
a. retroactive interference
Which part of Baddeley’s working memory model is posited to control the flow of information?
a. phonological loop
b. visuo-spatial sketchpad
c. central executive
d. none of the above
c. central executive
Which of the following might you expect from someone with a higher memory span?
a. they will most likely be happier since memory span is associated with IQ and IQ with happiness
b. they will be better at procedural tasks, such as driving
c. if working in a chaotic environment, they may be better able to focus on the task at hand and ignore external visual and auditory info compared to someone with lower memory span
d. they will be faster at typing a pre-written term paper compared to someone with lower memory span
c. if working in a chaotic environment, they may be better able to focus on the task at hand and ignore external visual and auditory info compared to someone with lower memory span
Your grandmother is excited because she just signed up to take a “brain training” course through an online game developer. What would you tell her?
a. That’s great! I’ve heard these types of programs help slow cognitive decline and the skills will transfer to many daily tasks
b. I hope you didn’t pay a lot! Although WM is important, the skills you learn may not transfer to tasks in your daily life
c. That’s great! I think WM is very important to many tasks, so this will be very helpful
d. I hope you didn’t pay a lot! i heard there are many similar programs that offer great WM training for free
b. I hope you didn’t pay a lot! Although WM is important, the skills you learn may not transfer to tasks in your daily life
Working memory capacity has been correlated with, and shown to predict, which of the following?
a. happiness
b. general intelligence
c. music ability
d. motor dexterity
b. general intelligence
Baddeley’s WM model has a _ store and an articulatory rehearsal process (different from the maintenance rehearsal process for STM)
phonological
The articulatory rehearsal process converts incoming _ information into a _ code
visual;
verbal
The articulatory rehearsal process converts incoming _ information into a _ code
visual;
verbal
you are seeing something happen, and by articulating it, you convert it into a verbal code, making it easier to remember
(previous study suggested that changing from one code to another helps in STM)
Articulatory rehearsal occurs during _, and its suppression impacts the same process
encoding
We are _ at recognizing similar words since we are using a visuo-spatial sketchpad
worse!
T of F: Baddeley’s central executive was based on extensive research and experiments
no, it was more or less an educated guess
An important function for central executive is _ relevant and irrelevant information
regulating
what is valid? why should I care? if not important, why bother?
Sensory memory does/not have a behavioural output
DOES NOT;
- it’s too busy dealing with everything that is being processed
_ memory has a duration of up to 1 second
sensory
Sensory memory has un/limited capacity
unlimited capacity
Sensory memory has a long/short duration
short!
Sensory memory has a long/short duration
short!
_ memory has a duration of approx 15 - 30 seconds
short-term
STM has un/limited capacity
limited - 7 +/- 2! (5 - 9)
How is WM measured? operation _, or essentially how much you remember while doing something else
operation span
How can working memory put things together to store memory?
a. incorporate the phonological loop for auditory data to store
b. incorporate the visuo-spatial sketchpad for visual data to store
c. store it in the central executive
d. incorporate an episodic buffer to store bound events
d. incorporate an episodic buffer to store bound events
like a and b, the episodic buffer has processing abilities, yet central executive is still the ‘processor’
T or F: Is the episodic buffer a ‘processor’?
no, it is a storage area for items processed by the central executive
Is LTM incorporated in Baddeley’s revised WM model (2000)?
no, but STM stores have access to info in LTM
Episodic buffer is at the same level as the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad bc…
it doesn’t take any resources (attentional or otherwise), therefore it is passive, much like the p loop and the v-s sketchpad
Is Baddeley’s model of WM the only one?
no
All WM models assume there is storage and some type of _ control occurring
attentional
Cowan’s WM model suggests that we do/not have a separate WM unit; it’s whatever we’re paying attention to in LTM
do not have a separate system;
remember the cloud of LTM with red star around memory ‘dots’ that are captured
Cowan’s WM model, much like others (not including Baddeley’s models) are domain-_ and assume parallel activation
general
i.e., working memory is seen as an influence for a wide range of situations and tasks, not specific to certain items (e.g., math, the arts, etc.)
