Ch 4 Flashcards
This is _: taking in information through our senses and processing it in order to determine what is out there in the world
perception
T or F: there is not a gap between the information coming into our senses and the kind of information that the brain actually wants to figure out about the world
false - quite the opposite. There can be a huge disconnect, for which it requires an accelerated brain to understand
_, the conversion of physical properties of the world or body into a neural code by the peripheral nervous system
sensation
The conversion of physical properties of the world or body into a neural code by the PNS takes place in the _ _s
sensory neurons
Sensory neurons are spread throughout the _ nervous system
peripheral
Sensory neurons respond by specific kinds of physical properties such as:
_
heat
light
pressure
Does physical stimulation always lead to excitation of a sensory neuron?
no, but often it does
Excitation of the neuron means there are more frequent _ _
action potentials
_ is the process of converting physical stimulation into a neural code
transduction
Transduction may be thought of as a kind of _ of local conditions in the environment and the body
measurement; as though a barometer
Order of perception:
1. …
2. the neural code is passed along to the central nervous system to be processed
3. processing in the cortex generates behaviour
- the senses have converted their measurements into a neural code, i.e., transduction
T or F: we see with our eyes or hear with our ears
False - we do so with our brain which converts sensory signals from those parts into our senses
Sensory stimulus consists of _ of local measurements of pressure/temperature made by specialized neurons embedded in your skin
millions
To perceive the identify of an object when touching something, the brain must combine millions of sensory measurements and .compare the input to…
stored representations of that which has been encountered before
Does perception require some or a majority of the cortex?
the majority - it’s a difficult problem
Senses involve measuring and interpreting properties of the external environment, which is called _eption
exteroception
Gustation/taste is based on substance-bound _ _ in the mouth
chemical compounds
The five _n senses include: touch, gustation/taste, olfaction/smell, vision/seeing
exteroception
We have multiple senses that measure properties of our own body, which is called _ception
interoception
_eption is the sense of where in space our limbs are
proprioception
Nociception is the sense of…
pain due to bodily damage
_ception is our sense of balance
equilibrioception
Two additional senses that measure properties of our own body include…
the feeling of something in your throat
the sense of f…
fullness from eating
There are _ broad classes of sensory receptors found throughout different parts of the body
four
_ceptors have specialized nerve endings that respond to concentrations of chemicals in their local environment
chemoreceptors
Chemoreceptors are found in your _ and _, and they are also present in less obvious places, like the skin or internal organs, where they can measure buildup of chemicals related to tissue damage
nose and mouth
By measuring buildup or chemicals related to tissue DAMAGE, chemoreceptors can support a kind of _ception
nociception
_ceptors are stimulated by physical force and are present throughout multiple parts of the body
mechanoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors are present in multiple parts including the skin, where they detect _ due to touch; the inner ear where they detect air _; and the arteries, where they detect blood _
pressure due to touch
air vibrations
blood pressure
_ceptors are stimulated by heat or cold and may be found in the skin as well as throughout several internal organs
thermoreceptors
_ceptors have responses that are modified by light, and are found only in the eye
photoreceptors
Increased light energy sensed by photoreceptors results in a _ level of neurotransmitters being released
lower level of neurotransmitters being released
- perhaps it assumes that we are in a light-filled space, and is more interested in when it’s dark to thwart predators?
T or F: typically, sensory receptors respond more vigorously with greater amounts of stimulation, apart from photoreceptors
true - photoreceptors seem more interested in when it’s dark than when it’s light out
One-third to one-half of the cortex is involved in _ processing
visual
_ is the most widely studied and best understood of the modalities and therefore provides a lot of insight into the methods and findings of cognitive research into perception
vision
T or F: lessons drawn from the visual system have application to the other sensory modalities as well
true - they all depend on the same process of transduction of physical energy into a neural code by the senses, transmission to the brain through subcortical and then cortical structures, and then processing in the cortex to generate behaviour
_ is the fastest thing in the universe, making it ideal for trying to infer detailed spatial properties of objects even when they are far away
light
In order for light to enter the eye, it must first pass through the _, which is a transparent, rubbery layer of tissue at the front of the eye
cornea
The cornea _s light in order to help it land on the correct part of the eye
bends
After the cornea, the light passes through a small opening in the _, the circular ring of coloured muscle at the front of the eyeball
iris
The small opening in the iris is called the _
pupil
The _ can contract and relax in order to change the size of the _ to allow in more or less light
the iris moves to change the amount the pupil takes in
The cornea is the clear portion of the anterior area of the eye, then there is a space, the pupil for light to bypass, and then it is…
focused more by the lens
The order that light enters the eyes is…
- cornea
- pupil
- lens (contracts and focuses)
Functional _zation, the concept that specific brain areas are concerned with specific types of capabilities
functional localization
Visual _s, cases in which a person has difficulty recognizing or perceiving one kind of visual stimulus while maintaining the ability to process other kinds of stimuli
visual agnosias
Prosopagnosia is a marked difficulting in recognizing…
individual faces, not faces in general
T OR F: individuals diagnosed with prosopagnosia suffer from general visual or memory difficulties
false - they are able to recognize objects and remember their function and can also recall names and facts about people as well
Can those with prosopagnosia not recognize their own reflection?
yes, remarkably
Prosopagnosia is also NOT associated with _ agnosia, those who can recognize faces but not everyday objects such as tools, eating implements, and so on
semantic agnosia
Is semantic agnosia only a visual deficit?
yes, people understand what items are used for, they just can’t recognize them unless prompted
The existence of dissociated agnosias suggest that these different visual capabilities may depend on…
different regions of the brain
Imaging studies support the view that dissociated agnosias depend on…
different regions of the brain
The _ face area (FFA) is in the inferior temporal cortex, or on the left side of the brain facing below
fusiform face area
The FFA shows greater activity when people engage in a _ recognition task than when they perform other kinds of recognition (Kanwisher et al., 1992)
facial recognition task
By showing greater activity in a region during a specific recognition task, we can determine that similar individuals with deficit in that area will…
have difficulties with performing said recognition task
The lateral occipital cortex (LOC) is selectively activated when people do…
an object recognition task
The presence of specialized brain activity has suggested to some researchers that these parts of the brain are geared towards processing … of objects
particular classes - depending on the brain region, one may have deficits in tasks specific to only particular objects, as opposed to general issues with all objects
Do all researches suggest that brain regions are specialized for certain classes of objects?
no - some argue certain KINDS OF PROCESSING occur to apply to these objects (Gautherier and Tarr)
Gauthier and Tarr proposed that the FFA is not concerned with faces per see, but rather with the ability to discriminate between… based on experiments in which participants learn to discriminate between sets of visually similar computer-generated stimuli called Greebles
visually similar stimuli
Gauthier and Tarr argue that FFA is associated with faces because…
of the social importance of being able to distinguish people, rather than using the fusiform face area specific to face recognition
After the visual input first reaches the visual cortex, the axons leading away diverge in two different directions, referred to as different _s of _n
streams of information
The _ stream of information projects upward and terminates in the parietal lobe, while the _ stream projects downward and terminates in the temporal lobe
dorsal stream moves up and front, ventral moves down and to the left site
Mishkin and Ungerleider (1982) observed monkeys that had lesions to either their dorsal or ventral stream of information [for vision]. They found that monkeys with _ damage had difficulty doing a visual matching task when it involved determining whether some object was the same or different across trials
ventral damage - moving down and to the left site, in the temporal lobe
Mishkin and Ungerleider (1982) observed monkeys that had lesions to either their dorsal or ventral stream of information [for vision]. They found that monkeys with _ damage could do a visual matching task when it involved determining whether some object was the same or different across trials, but had difficulty when they had to compare the LOCATION of an object across trials
dorsal damage - moving up towards the parietal lobe
Mishkin and Ungerleider (1982)’s study on monkeys with lesions determined that ventral stream is concerned with processing the “” aspects of visual input, whereas the dorsal stream is concerned with the “” aspects
what - ventral
where, how - dorsal
The _ lobe integrates internal and external perceptions (dorsal pathway)
parietal
The _ lobe processes schematic memory (ventral pathway)
temporal
Goodale and Milner (1991) argued that pathway of information damage affects perception if it does not include _
action - a patient with ventral damage but intact dorsal stream was able to turn a letter as if putting it into a mailbox, but otherwise was not able to match a line on its orientation, simply by looking at it. it is by the doing (i.e., visually guided behaviour) that damages were able to be overcome
T or F: Goodale and Milner had seen that patients with dorsal damage but an intact ventral stream were able to do a perceptual matching task perfectly, but were not able to perform a visually guided action
true - they conversely had seen patients with ventral damage but an intact dorsal stream not be able to do a perceptual matching task, but were able to perform a visually guided action
Goodale and Milner’s theory suggests the dorsal/ventral streams process which kind of information, respectively?
a) size/distance
b) where/what
c) meaning/form
d) action/perception
d) action/perception
Yes, the dorsal stream, towards the parietal lobe focuses on action and “where” things are relative to your body in space and the ventral stream, towards the temporal lobe determines “what” things are
this makes sense, considering the dorsal stream goes towards motor information in the cortex
Perceptual processing is your brain’s attempt to construct a … based on sensory input
a mental model of the external world
Perceptual processing is your brain’s attempt to construct a a mental model of the external world based on sensory input. This is considered the _e _n model
constructive perception model
According to the constructive perception model, _ _ are based on the inferred model rather than on the sensory stimulation itself
behavioural decisions
German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz determined that sensory stimulus would consist of a pattern of stimuli (air vibrations, etc.) while the precept is the sense (sound of a baby crying). He referred to this perspective as “_ inference”
unconscious inference
we create a mental model of the external world based on sensory input
An image falling on each of one’s two eyes is somewhat different because of the angle of light hitting them. But perceptually, we tend to only see one copy of the world out there. These observations suggest that our brains…and turn it into a stable, unified model of the world
take an unstable, divided sensory input
The idea that our brains take an unstable, divided sensory input and turn it into a stable, unified model of the world is aligned with the “_s _” model
unconscious inference model
_ perception involves a sensory stimulus, a mental model, and then action
constructive perception
_ perception involves sensory stimulus and action in a continuous loop
direct perception
The direct perception model rejects the idea that the brain…which is used to guide behaviour
constructs an intermediate mental model of the world which is then used to guide behaviour
direct perception suggests there is only sensory input and action based on that input
James J. Gibson, American psychologist, did important work on behaviours such as locomotion based on the _ perception viewpoint, often referred to as “Gibsonian”
direct perception viewpoint
T or F: Gibson initially proposed the direct perception model
false - it was proposed by physiologist Muller, teacher of Helmholtz (constructive perception model) who suggested that nerves form pathways that led directly from sensation to behaviour
You are using your vision to walk towards a desk that is a few feet away from you in a room. The properties of light on the eye are used by the brain to infer the location of a desk in 3D. You then execute motor movements that correspond with moving your body in that direction in space for the correct amount of time to reach the desk. This model is indicative of the _ perception perspective
constructive
You are using your vision to walk towards a desk that is a few feet away from you in a room. According to the _ perception model, you would start moving your body in such a way that the image of the desk in the center of your field of view and continues to correct and update your motion if the image of the desk strays to the right or left
direct perception model - interplay from visual stimulus and action behaviour
The entire notion of an external world, filled with objects and other people laid out in 3D space is a _ of the brain, based on available sensory evidence. This is indicative of the _ [similar word] theory of perception
construct; constructive perception
T or F: sensory evidence is unambiguous according to the construct perception model
false - it is ambiguous; any sensory stimulus is consistent with many possible distal stimuli
The ambiguous nature of sensory stimuli is best understood when considering _, the rare examples where our brain consistently makes the wrong guess
illusions
Illusions reveal the underlying …during perception
the underlying assumptions that the brain makes during perception
A surface that is “white” typically reflects _% of the light that hits it, whereas for “black” it’s _%
90%; 10%
Our perceptual brain is more concerned with the properties of an object that remain stable…
across variable conditions
Having properties of an object remain stable across variable conditions is a property of the _ perception model
constructive perception model
A surface’s _ refers to our perception of how dark or light an object’s surface is. This perception tends to map well to the physical reflectance of the surface
a surface’s LIGHTNESS
What do illusions reveal about the assumptions that the brain makes during perception?
a) perception is not as useful as sensation
b) these assumptions are usually incorrect
c) perception often depends on guesses
d) our brains cannot be tricked
c) perception often depends on guesses
Staring at an imagine of a (Necker) cube compels the brain to change its interpretation of which direction it’s pointing, suggestive of the _ility of perception
bi-stability; bi-stable
The “dress illusion” suggests the _ility of perception
bi-stability
Illusions and effects of bi-stability are rare. T OR F?
true - they don’t happen alot
There are two mechanisms in perception:
- processing
- processing
bottom-up
top-down
- processing does not require any general knowledge of the stimulus
bottom-up; induce - make assumptions based on data
- processing is where we leverage knowledge or expectations that are not in the sensory stimulus itself in order to process it
top-down processing; we deduce, based on what we know already
The phonemic restoration effect involves the brain…based on expectations about which sounds belong in that portion of speech
the brain “filling in” missing sounds from a speech signal, based on expectations…
Phonemic restoration effect is an example of - processing
top-down; deduce
While the retina image is a continuous array of measurements, your brain may want to know how to divide up the image into different objects and regions. This is the problem of _ _
image segmentation i.e., recognizing its individual parts (whether of a body, an item, etc.)
While an image is 2D, the brain seeks 3D info. this is the problem of _ perception
depth
Your brain wants to identify what objects are. This is the problem of _ recognition
object recognition
Which of the following would be necessary in order to count the number of objects in an image?
a) depth perception
b) top-down processing
c) image segmentation
d) visual group
c) image segmentation
Assigning light/dark boundaries within an image and then assigning the boundary to one side or the other of an object is known as the - assignment
figure-ground
Rubin’s vase/face image is an example of - assignment illusion (in addition to being a bi-stable stimulus)
figure-ground assignment
The general bias to assign figure or ground such that the assigned figure has a shape in which more of the contour is protruding outward/_, rather than inward. This is why, in an image with a purple pac-man and a blue triangle, we assume the blue triangle is in the foreground, and the purple is in the background
convex; shows convexity
_ refers to the tendency to assign figure or ground such that the resulting figure has bilateral mirror _ [same word]: the contours on each side are a mirror image of each other
symmetry
We assume imagines that are a _ region are the figure/foreground of an image, whereas its opposite is the background
smaller region is figure/foreground, larger is background
The brain assigns figure so that the resulting objects have shapes that are…
consistent with objects previously encountered in the world before
Combining spatially separate regions into unified wholes is referred to as _ _ing, a process first described by Gestalt psychology
visual grouping
_ psychology has 3 laws for grouping cues
Gestalt
The three grouping cues according to Gestalt psychology are:
similarity - those that are similar are grouped
proximity - those nearby are grouped
_
good continuation - a straight or a smooth, continuous path are seen as belonging together, rather than a sharp discontinuity
Grouping similar items can vary according to their properties, such as:
colour
_
shape, etc.
luminance
Seeing two straight, overlapping lines rather than two “v” shapes connected at the vertex is indicative of the Gestalt law of “_ _”
continuation
Matching an object to an image stored in memory, point by point, is called the _ model of recognition
template model of recognition; store the original image, much like a camera stores photos in a memory card
The template model of recognition is considered a failure for trying to recognize objects in the real world because…
every time you view an object its external factors change (depth, lighting, viewpoint), making it complicated, and requiring flexible thinking (much as it’s difficult for machine vision to recognize certain items)
_ is the ability to identify the same object or person across variations
identification
We can recognize something as a member of a group even if we have never encountered that specific example before. This type of recognition is called _
classification
Some would argue that it is _ rather than how an object looks in its entirety that help one identify it
features; e.g., wagging tail and ears meaning a dog, although individual tails and ears may differ substantially
_ _ is the goal of getting a computer to segment, locate and recognize objects in images
machine/computer vision
Human-level computer recognition of everyday objects, _ _, is not possible until computers can learn the right features to use
general recognition
The example of flowers above the phrases “he slept in the bed” and “the rose was bright red” illustrate that _ of sentences affects how you read, an example of top-down processing/deduction
context
Irving Biederman (1972) compared accuracy in a fast recognition task and found that appearing in the correct context led to better and faster accuracy in identifying the target object. This is a concept referred to as _ _a
scene schema
Barenholtz’ (2014) study had shown that context facilitates recognition, allowing people to recognize objects with less resolution while in a familiar context _ the necessary resolution even more
decreases; if you know what to expect, then you are more likely to make inferences than make use of limited sensory info, based on the context it’s in
Some of the most powerful computer vision algorithms are based on _ _ _ (CNNs), a class of artificial _ _ [last two words] that learn features that can appear in different locations in an image that are useful in order to recognize an image as being a member of a category
convolutional neural networks (CNNs)
A _n is an operation that takes in an image and performs some math operation on it in order to produce a different image
convolution
An array of numbers that may be multiplied by the values of an image produce an output number. In CNNs, these are used to detect the presence of image features or _ls/_rs
kernels/filters
A representation in a convolutional neural network of how much of a given feature is present across different locations in an image: _ _p
feature map
_: the study of how the external world gets represented in our brain/mind so that we can understand and act upon what’s going on around us
perception
Observations from patients with visual _ give us an indication of the process that occurs during vision
agnosias
Is visual agnosia a problem with knowledge?
no
Deficit in visual agnosias occurs before? after? basic visual processing, likely from damage to cortex (_-primary visual cortex)
AFTER basic visual processing, likely POST-primary visual cortex
Visual agnosia is a deficit in recognition despite normal…
normal vision
patients with _ agnosia are unable to name, match or discriminate visually presented objects (i.e., cannot copy them)
apperceptive agnosia
Apperceptive agnostic patients can’t combine basic visual information into a… therefore they show deficits in copying as well
complete percept
Apperceptive agnostic patients can’t bring _ visual elements into …
separate visual elements into a whole
Patients with _ agnosia cannot associate a visual pattern with meaning - they can’t recognize what they see, although they are able to copy it
associative agnosia - cannot make inferences on the object, despite noticing its shape, qualities, etc.
Patients with associative agnosia are not/able? to combine visual features into a whole, so they are not/able? to copy well
they ARE able to copy it and are able to do so well
T OR F: Patients with associative agnosia can mimic its use when possessing a real object, and can then possibly recognize it.
true - it is those with apperceptive agnosia that have more difficulties
Patient data tells us there are separate steps to visual perception:
1. input/sensation
2. basic visual components assembled
3…
meaning is linked to visual input
Those with apperceptive agnosia have issues with the _ step of visual perception
the 3rd step, i.e., meaning is linked to visual input
The _ _r is the false assumption that the structure of the world is directly given from our senses
experience error - if that were the case, illusions wouldn’t exist
The inverse projection problem illustrates that…
the structure of the world is based on INTERPRETATION of stimuli, rather than simply stimuli
A grey rectangle visualization in a backdrop that changes from black to white that appears it changes in colour (but is technically the same grey colour) is evidence of an experience error, specifically the _s _t illusion
simultaneous contrast illusion
The two similar red lines transplanted on an escalator that one appears further away appear different in length despite being the same is the _ illusion
Ponzo illusion
T or F: Our perception of the world is a copy of what Is out there - there are different clues, etc. that are needed to understand the world
true
We have the impression of seeing a continuous image of the world, however our eyes follow a series of - cycles
fixation-saccade cycles
Conscious visual information in movement is _ because it is a blur and confusing
suppressed, i.e., saccade
What is seen on an image of varying depths (e.g., person beside an ocean) are _ spots, otherwise a series of on-off on-off vision, provided by saccade
fixated spots
The _ approach is concerned with discovering how the brain represents and interprets distal stimulus
computational approach
Distal stimuli - _ items in the environment for which one has a mental representation
physical
Proximal stimuli are defined as stimuli that reaches…
your senses
The _ approach uses organizational principles to create meaning perception of the environment - understanding content
Gestalt approach
The perception/_n approach assumes the goals of _ [same word] help determine perception, understanding how to BEHAVE with content
action
The major difference between approaches for studying perception is whether the goal is r_ or a_
recognition or action
approaches are:
1. computational - how the brain represents and interprets distal stimulus
2. Gestalt - org principles to create meaningful perception of the environment (‘big picture’
3. perception/action - goals of action help determine perception
Most approaches of studying perception follow bottom-up/top-down processing
bottom-up (data-driven)
We induce something, therefore we use - thinking
bottom-up (data propels theory)…you inquire about data to find a solution
Perception is influenced by our prior knowledge, memories and experiences. This is indicative of the - approach to the study of perception
top-down processing approach (deduct to data; theory to data)
T OR F: Gestalt approach refers to top-down processing
false - Gestalt is not necessarily top-down processing
According to template theory, a type of computational approach, we have a “_ _ for an array of different patterns. Its goal is to recognize letters and other visuals, and is used for cognitive experiments
mental ‘stencil’
computational approach
e.g., Pandemonium (Selfridge, 1959)
Do humans do template matching (i.e., mental ‘stencils’) for patterns? Why/why not?
no, bc there are too many that could be used and every individual is different - looks at things in a different way
Another computation approach is _e _ing, having a system for analyzing distinct _s [repeat first word] of a visual item, i.e., colours, shapes, letters, etc.
feature matching; analyzing distinct features
FEature matching uses a _l model: take info, break apart, put it together and make a decision, based on bottom-up, inductive thinking
serial model
T or F: The serial model (i.e., taking info, breaking it apart, putting it together and making a decision) can be done only sequentially
false - it can also be done with parallel processing, or simultaneously, too
Pandemonium is an example of a _ _ing model of computational approach to perception
feature matching
The yelling demons analogy
The stages of Pandemonium, an illustration of the feature matching model of perception:
1. demons take a picture of the visual
2. demons pass output to a feature demon, who counts up the individual features that exist (e.g., horizontal lines are shown twice, oblique lines are shown once, etc.)
3. cognitive demons listen to what is happening from the second demons, and start shouting what input they assume it is
4. …?
- decision demons determine which cognitive demons (from step 3) are yelling the loudest, suggesting that is what the stimuli is
There is physiological support for feature matching, based on the discovery of feature detector neurons in _ _ cortex
Primary visual
Another example of the computational approach of perception is _’s recognition by components
Biederman’s
Biederman’s recognition by components suggests that to understand visual recognition, you need to understand particular _s
components or shapes
How does feature matching and Biederman’s recognition by components differ?
feature matching involves 2D shapes whereas Biederman’s theory recognized 3D shapes or geons
Geons are view-point in/variant bc they have nonaccidental properties
view-point invariant; they require flexible understanding of shapes at DIFFERENT angles because they have nonaccidental properties - specific to a shape
Recognition by components is impaired when we view objects from non-_ viewpoints / seen in a different way
non-canonical viewpoints
e.g., seeing water bottles from above is not helpful
The inability for Biederman’s recognition by components to view objects by non-canonical viewpoints is continually an issue for computer _
computer vision
T OR F: Biederman’s recognition by components comes from a long history of computation theories that were, for the most part, concerned with describing the physical implementation of such systems in humans
false - they don’t care about physical implementation, but rather what is happening not why
T or F: evidence from psychology and physiology does not support a viewpoint invariant approach (Biederman’s recognition by components) to object identification
true
based on viewer-centred bias; object recognition is faster from FAMILIAR VIEWPOINTS, not invariant, and cortical neurons demonstrate viewpoint SPECIFICITY
Arguments against bottom-up processing for perception:
1. analyzing each feature one at a time takes a long time
2. theories that rely on features cannot explain WITHIN CATEGORY discrimination
3. …?
- pattern recognition can depend on top-down/conceptually driven effects
e.g., phonemic representation effect - we anticipate words based on previous experience
We use what we know about physical properties of the world to perceive 3D objects from 2D images for bottom-up/top-down processing
top-down processing
The light above heuristic suggests that we tend to see these items as _ into space, whereas we see light below as _ into space
light above - protruding into space
light below - receding into space
The light from above heuristic is an example of - processing
top-down, since in nature we typically see items with light above as moving towards us, whereas lit from below appears to recede in the distance
Top-down processing suggests that visualization is based on your _
expectations
The image that has 25 rectangles in 5 rows that can be visualized bi-stably, shows that when assuming the middle row is the highest point, the rows beside it are of different shades of grey, whereas if the middle row is the lowest point, the rows beside it are of the same shade of grey. This is based on heuristics from - processing
top-down processing
we anticipate items that are light-above as lighter than those below, whereas for items with light-below, we assume they’ll be darker
We use s_ _s to help us identify objects in familiar environments, based on top-down processing
scene schemas
e.g., images of a fruit that are blurred more when in a familiar context are more understandable as the object it represents than clearer images in an unfamiliar context
“the whole is different than the sum of its parts” is indicative of _ approach to perception
Gestalt
- it’s hard to determine what it is when looking at features out of context
Gestalt psychology is concerned with how perception gets organized into…
meaningful units
e.g., why do features of a bicycle not make sense unless it is using those shapes to draw a bicycle?
We can use Gestalt rules of perception to predict what will be perceived based on one _ at a time - it is hard to predict the outcome of combining _s [same word], yet they are remarkably robust
law
The Gestalt law of _ _n is similar to the law of common region
good continuation
Top-down is not synonymous with Gestalt because the latter is concerned with the ‘_ _’, whereas the former is based on past experience
big picture
The _d cognition approach came from Gibson’s direct perception approach - much earlier viewer of this contemporary approach
embodied cognition approach
The embodied cognition approach considers previous approaches as _, or studying the mental representations of the world
indirect
According to Gibson in his “direct perception” approach, or in the later embodied cognition approach, the environment contains all the information to…
perceive
According to Gibson in his “direct perception” approach, or in the later embodied cognition approach, laboratory experiments using 2D images is in/effective? to learn about perception
it’s ineffective - the embodied cognition/direct perception approach values ACTION and BEHAVIOUR rather than mental representations, images, heuristics, etc.
The image “Ceci n’est pas une pipe” is a great illustration of the _ _ approach to perception
embodied cognition approach to perception / direct perception approach
According to Gibson, everything we need to know about the environment is available from the _t _c _y, according to direct perception
direct optic array
The ambient optic array, according to the direct perception approach, is the structure imposed on…and contains all the information we need for perception, provided it’s constantly changing
light by the environment
According to Gibson’s direct approach, _ is required to ‘pick up’ (i.e., opposite of experience error) the required information from the optic array to perceive
MOTION/ACTION
According to Gibson’s direct approach, motion is described by _c _w in the ambient optic array
optic flow
According to Gibson’s direct approach:
1. if there is flow in the optic array, the observer is in motion
2. the _ of flow indicates the _ [same word] the observer is moving
direction!
The changing _ of vectors represent movement, including what is in the periphery changes more rapidly, whereas nearby is less so - we learn about depth and speed. This is indicative of the direct perception model
the changing direction of vectors
Does Gibson’s direct perception approach value what things mean in perception?
no, rather how to behave with things in the environment
The goal of perception, according to Gibson’s direct perception approach, is to provide a perceiver with info about objects’ a_ - learning more about it helps us learn how to move ourselves
affordances/ intended usage(s)
e.g., a tall stool is good for an adult, whereas a child would not see it necessarily as a place to sit, unless assisted. therefore, it could be seen as a tall structure…
_’s approach is extreme for considering which affordances/intended usage(s) directly connect perception and action without the need for intervening cognitive processes
Gibson’s
Gibson’s direct approach is considered extreme because it does not address:
perceptual representation (it doesn’t address what one receives by one’s senses) and
…
the role of memory (i.e., top-down processing)
An experiment that had participants carry a heavy backpack that led them to think a slope is steeper than those without a backpack suggests an interaction of action and representing affects one’s perception, an argument against…
Gibson’s direct perception approach (action only, not representation)
Most modern researchers believe both _ and _s are involved in perception, but that _ [first word] influences how we perceive the world
action and representations are involved, but that ACTION influences how we perceive the world
Experiment #1 (orange and blue circles): Putting accuracy better when they thought the hole was bigger(little circles around it instead of large) to when it was a smaller hole – interaction between perception and action supported
Experiment #2 (orange and blue circles): when picking up the orange object, they treat it the same – independence of action and representation
Based on these results, what would research be interested in?
Current research: where does the interaction come in for representation and action?
The _ _ _ (PPA) is a functional specialization for places - scenery, buildings, etc. It is found in the medial posterior view of the right hemisphere of the temporal lobe (looking up), interior to the FFA and LO
perihippocampal place area
The _ _ complex (LO) is a functional specialization for manmade objects only. It is found in the the posterior view of the right hemisphere of the temporal lobe (looking up), external to the PPA and FFA
lateral occipital complex
The _ _ _ (FFA) is a functional specialization for faces only. It is found in the the posterior view of the right hemisphere of the temporal lobe (looking up), between the LO and PPA
fusiform face area
The _ _ _ (EBA) is a functional specialization for disembodied body parts only. It is found in the the posterior view of the right hemisphere of the temporal lobe (looking up), somewhere near the LO, FFA, and PPA
extrastriate body area
_ studies have revealed different areas of activation for perception of faces, places and objects
imaging studies, finding localization of perception
T OR F: deficits in motor perception and action can be found with object identification issues
false - as explained in the youtube video with a person with ideomotor apraxia, she may recognize items, but can’t necessarily demonstrate how to use them
_ _a is damage to the “where or how” pathway in the left parietal cortex, along the dorsal information pathway
ideomotor apraxia
Does ideomotor apraxia affect one’s same side or the side opposite to the side of the brain?
the side opposite to the side of the brain
e.g., ideomotor apraxia on the left-side of the brain would predict issues with actions using the RIGHT-side of the body
Does one with ideomotor apraxia have issues with demonstrating action based on one’s own body?
no, generally not - it’s more to do with issues visualizing using objects and those actions, rather than the body’s movement itself
If one has ideomotor apraxia and an object is placed in front of her, would she be likely to show us how to use it?
No. Although she likely understands what it is, she may not be able to demonstrate how it’s done
e.g., would understand a key in front of her is used to unlock a door, but may not be able to demonstrate it
_ agnosia is damage closer to the lobe itself, therefore patients tend to have more issues recognizing objects and using it
apperceptive agnosia (vs. associative agnosia, which is more damage to the pathway than the lobe itself)
_ is a result of cortical damage to visual areas and results in a dissociated visual recognition and vision for action; a.k.a. cortical blindness
e.g., able to successfully walk around objects in a hallway, despite being blind
blindsight
Unlike object recognition concerns, propoganosia requires more _-category differentiation (i.e., noticing individual differences, not what they are in general)
within-category differentiation (not between, since the latter would distinguish faces from other things)
Tanaka & Farah (1993) discovered it is a lot easier to recognize parts of a face/house than parts of faces/hours
house;
faces
In Tanaka & Farah’s 1993 experiments, they found that when features of faces are changed/constant but the relationship of the configuration of the images differs/remains the same. then face processing is affected.
i.e., two eyes moved out of where they would normally be on a face would make it much more difficult to recognize celebrities’ faces than if only one eye moved vs no movement at all
face features are constant but configuration differs, then face processing is affected
The face _ effect suggests that we are faster and more accurate recognizing upright faces compared to inverted faces, probably because the former occurs more in nature
the face inversion effect
Diamond and Carey (1986) experiment using _s suggests that face processing seems special only because we are experts at identifying them (general expertise), rather than it being domain specific
dogs
The domain-general vs. -specific distinction is debated still. T or F?
true
Domain-general theories would propose that acquisition of language and mathematical skill are developed by the same broad set of cognitive skills, domain-specific theories would propose that they are genetically, neurologically and computationally independent.
Robbins and McKone (2007) replicated and extended Diamond and Carey’s 1986 study, but failed to replicate their expertise findings (i.e., that face processing is/isn’t special)
Robbins and McKone found that face processing is special, which is opposite to Diamond and Carey’s study which suggested that face processing isn’t special and is indicative of a general expertise)
Recently, Campbell and Tanaka (2018) demonstrated equivalent _ effects for faces and budgies among budgie experts, suggesting face processing is a general expertise, not a special one
inversion
viewed from upside-down
Sensation takes place in the _
a. brain
b. spinal cord
c. sensory organs
d. eye
c. sensory organs
What do illusions reveal about the assumptions that the brain makes during perception?
a. Perception often depends on guesses
b. these assumptions are usually incorrect
c. Perception is not as useful as sensation
d. Our brains cannot be tricked
a. Perception often depends on guesses
A Necker cube is an example of a _
(cube with a green dot and a red dot on the corners)
a. 3D image
b. bi-stable image
c. stable image
d. dynamics image
b. bi-stable image
Which of these is a property of perspective projection?
a. when an object is closer to you, the image on your retina decreases in size
b. when an object is closer to you, the image on your retina increases in size
c. images stay the same size on your retina no matter how close or far they are from you
d. the cornea bends the light while the pupil allows more or less light in
b. when an object is closer to you, the image on your retina increases in size
According to Goodale and Milner, the dorsal/ventral visual streams are for ______ and ______.
a. near vision; far vision
b. action; perception
c. what; where
d. how; when
b. action; perception
Feature-based recognition _ .
a. demonstrates that recognition is better from familiar views than from unfamiliar views
b. demonstrates that we use features that remain stable across viewpoints
c. is the best approach to recognition and is supposed by research data
d. is similar to template matching except that is even more inflexible
b. demonstrates that we use features that remain stable across viewpoints
All of these are Gestalt principles except ______.
a. law of similarity
b. law of proximity
c. good continuation
d. law of occlusion
d. law of occlusion
Prosopagnosia is a deficit characterized by the inability to ______.
a. recognize objects
b. perform a perceptual orientation matching
c. perceive depth
d. recognize faces
d. recognize faces
Which part of the brain shows greater activity when people engage in a facial recognition task than when they perform other kinds of recognition tasks?
a. fusiform face area (FFA)
b. lateral occipital cortex (LOC)
c. occipital lobe
d. frontal lobe
a. fusiform face area (FFA)
Which of these is not considered a figure-ground cue?
a. convexity
b. symmetry
c. smaller region
d. good continuation
d. good continuation
Visual processing involves:
1. input/sensation
2. …
3. meaning linked to visual input
basic visual components assembled
Humans appear to have a viewer-centred bias based on:
1. object recognition is faster from familiar viewpoints
2. cortical neurons demonstrate _ _
viewpoint specificity
evidence from psychology and physiology does not support a viewpoint invariant approach to object identification (tough luck to Biederman’s Geon Theory)
Gestalt law of _ suggests that those that are close together are together
proximity
Gestalt law of _ suggests that those that have the same characteristics are together
similarity
Gestalt law of _ suggests that those that are bound are together
common region
Gestalt law of _ suggests that if things have been associated in prior viewings, they will be grouped together in the future
experience (role of)
The goal of perception, according to those of the …theory, is to provide a perceiver with info about objects’ affordances
perception/action theory (sim to Gibson’s direct perception)
Blindsight is a type of agnosia as a result from damage to the “what” pathway, i.e., the _ pathway
ventral
A study by Diamond and Carey (1986) suggested dog experts identify dogs in the same way that the rest of us identify faces. If Robbins and McKone (2007) replicated and extended their study but failed to replicate their expertise findings, what does that suggest?
Diamond and Carey would argue that expertise is important, rather than faces themselves, whereas Robbins and McKone would argue that no, faces actually do seem to be special
Campbell and Tanaka (2018) recently demonstrated equivalent inversion effects for faces and budgies among budgie experts. What does this mean?
if they were equivalent for faces and budgies upside-down, then perhaps budgie experts’ expertise is what distinguishes them, and that faces aren’t that special but we are socially obligated to become experts
The 4 theories of attention involve these mechanisms (of representing attention as):
1. filter - theory of selective attention
2. spotlight - theory of vigilance
3. mental resource - _ _
4. feature binder - visual search
divided attention
